This is the class log, updated after every class meeting. It includes topics, assignments, announcements, Web links, and audio demonstrations from class.

Topics: Administrative wrap-up.

Class:

• Final-exam syllabus
• Robin writeups
• Course evaluations
• Link to Active Perl is here

Topics: The "poverty-of-the-stimulus" argument. Pullum & Scholz 2002 vs. Lidz et al. 2003.

Class:

• Discussion of Pullum & Scholz 2002, Lidz et al. 2003 (handout).
• Robin project

• Proceed with robin project

Topics: Experience and predisposition in human language acquisition

Class:

• Discussion of Pullum & Scholz 2002 (handout)
• Check in on robins
• Schedule presentations

Topics: Vocal learning in primates. Info on class presentations.

Class:

• Primate vocal development (Hauser 1996, Seyfarth & Cheney 1990, 1997)
  • Production
    • Vervet alarms and grunts
    • Squirrel monkeys: "Roman arch" vs. "Gothic arch"
    • Chimpanzee pant-hoots (Crockford et al. 2004, on handout)
  • Usage (producing what and when an adult would)
    • Vervet alarm triggers (on handout)
    • Cross-fostering experiments with Japanese and rhesus macaques
  • Recognition
    • Vervet alarm responses (on handout)
    • Cross-fostered Japanese and rhesus macaques
• Info about class presentations on robin project

• Read Pullum & Scholtz 2002 on the ``poverty-of-the-stimulus argument'' (Blackboard), sections 1, 3, 4.3, and 5 only.
• Continue working on project

Topics: Genetic influences on birdsong learning.

Class:

• "Learned" vs. "innate" (Marler 1999)
• Review song-learning model in Catchpole & Slater 1995, Ch. 3.
• Effects of experience vs. genes in song learning by Song Sparrows and Swamp Sparrows (Marler 1991, 1999)

• Read Hauser 1996:310-318 (Blackboard)
• Keep going on robins

Topics: Sensitive periods in human language acquisition. Testing hypotheses about robin song.

Class:

• Evidence for sensitive (or "critical") periods in birdsong learning
• Ditto, for human language (Newport 2002)
• Handout: Johnson & Newport 1989, Newport 1990
• Testing hypotheses about robin song (Handout #4)

• Read Marler 1991 (Blackboard) on innately constrained learning. (Warning: Long!)
• Proceed with robin project

Topics: Song learning and sensitive periods.

Class:

• "Closed-ended" vs. "open-ended" learners
• Stages of vocal production in a closed-ended learner
  • Subsong
  • Plastic song
  • Crystallized song
• Examples: Zebra Finch (Nottebohm 1999), Bengalese Finch (Okanoya 2004), Bewick's Wren (Kroodsma 2005:13-22, Tracks 10 and 11).
• Model of song acquisition in closed-ended learners (Catchpole & Slater 1995, Chapter 3)
• The sensitive period for vocal learning (Marler 1991, Nelson 1997).

• Read Newport 2002 on sensitive periods in human language acquisition.
• Continue with robin project

Topics: Song dialects and song learning. Robin project: segmentation.

Class:

• Causes of song dialects.
• Robin project: Segmentation

• Forge ahead on robin project
• Read Catchpole & Slater 1995:45-54, on song learning (this is less than all of Ch. 3)

Topics: Natural evidence for learning: Song dialects

Class:

• Song dialects
  • Geographical scale: neighbors -- microgeography -- macrogeography
  • Degrees of sharing
  • Dialect features
• Causes of song dialects?
  • Example: Song Sparrows (Burt et al. 2001, Kroodsma 2005)
  • Example: Chestnut-sided warblers (Kroodsma 2004)

Topics: Unlearned songs

Class:

• Tyrant flycatchers (Kroodsma 2005:79-89)
  • Tape-tutoring experiments
  • Deafened birds
• Gibbons (Geissmann 1993, 2000)
  • Handout on gibbon song
  • Watch videos here (T. Geissmann lab)
  • Song of inter-species hybrids (Geissmann 1993)

• Record robin song. Due by Friday.

Topics: Midterm 2. Context for the learning unit.

Class:

• Go over Midterm 2.
• Why would linguists care about vocal learning in other species?
• Opposing views
  • Language learning is special, constrained by "Universal Grammar". E.g.,
    • Chomsky 1965:47-59
    • Pinker 1994 (the whole book)
  • Language learning is not special; it uses pattern-recognition and problem-solving abilities that humans use in other domains. E.g.,
    • Bates et al. 1998

• For Wednesday, April 2: Read Kroodsma 2005:79-89 on tyrant flycatchers; listen to Tracks 20-23 from the Kroodsma CD; ponder questions on today's handout. (Blackboard).
• For Friday, April 4: Have one robin recorded.

Topics: Robin project; recording robins.

Class:

• Return midterms.
• Go outside and practice recording.

• For Monday, March 31: Choose one midterm question; figure out what problem was and what right answer should have been; write up and hand in.
• For Friday, April 4: Record one robin.

Topics: MIDTERM 2

Topics: Inadequacy of context-free phrase-structure grammars for human language.

Class:

• Pumping lemma for context-free languages
• Practice pumping English
• Discussion of Culy (1985) on Bambara "vocabulary"
• Questions about midterm

Topics: Inadequacy of finite-state machines for human syntax. Context-free phrase structure grammars and context-free languages.

Class:

• Discuss Chomsky 1957 reading
  • Use Pumping Lemma for regular languages on Chomsky's examples in (10).
  • English analogues of (10): "The House that Noam Built" (ref?)
• Context-free phrase-structure grammars
  • Formal definition
  • Application to examples in Chomsky's (10 i, ii)
  • Sketch of Pumping Lemma, application to Chomsky's (10 iii) (handout from Sipser 1998)

• Read Culy 1985 on a non-context-free phenomenon in Bambara. (Blackboard)

Topics: Regular languages and the Pumping Lemma.

Class:

• Handout on regular languages and the Pumping Lemma.
• Reading guide for Chomsky 1957 (be prepared to discuss in class next time).
• Syllabus for Midterm 2.

Topics: Discussion of Robinson 1984 on Cebus olivaceus.

Class:

• Handout: Discussion guide for Robinson 1984.

Topics: Combinatorial syntax and compositional semantics.

Class:

• Callicebus moloch (Robinson 1979)--evidence against a first-order Markov model.
• Review of compositionality of meaning in human language, and its relation to combinatorial syntax (on Blackboard).
• What have we seen as regards ...
  • Combinatorial syntax in non-humans?
  • Compositional semantics in non-humans?
  • Relation between the two?

• Read the "Discussion guide for Robinson 1984" handout (on Blackboard) and come prepared to discuss the questions on Friday.
• HW 5 on finite-state properties of human language for Monday after Spring Break. (On Blackboard)

Topics: Combinatorial structure of primate vocalizations, as exemplified by the titi monkey Callicebus moloch (Robinson 1979).

Class:

• Levels of structure in titi-monkey vocalizations.
• Finite-state syntax vs. "hierarchical organization" (e.g., phrase structure)

• For Wednesday, March 5: Read Robinson 1984 on possible combinatorial syntax with semantics in capuchin monkeys. Skip pp. 51-58. (Blackboard)

Topics: HW 4 (finite-state syntax in Flammulated Attila and American Robin). Johnson & Sutherland 2006.

Class:

• Finite-state machine for simulated Flammulated Attila song (Leger 2005).
• Transitions between syllables in American Robin song (Kroodsma 2005: Track 13).
• What is known at present about American Robin song syntax? (Johnson & Sutherland 2006).

• Read Robinson (1979) on Titi Monkey vocalizations (Blackboard).

Topics: First-order Markov processes. Intersection property of regular languages.

Class:

• (From last time:) Finish up BC Chickadees.
• Transition matrices and first-order Markov processes
• Usually, what's interesting is when it's not Markovian
• Example: Black-Capped Chickadee calls (Hailman et al. 1987)
• Example: Hermit Thrush song bout (Kroodsma 2005:255-267)
• Intersection property of regular languages

Topics: Finite-state syntax in birdsong. In-class problems using JFLAP.

Class:

• (Nondeterministic) finite-state machines.
• Implementing finite-state machines using JFLAP
• Exercise: Constructing a finite-state recognizer for the simulated Black-Capped Chickadee corpus (based on Hailman et al. 1987). Hear an example here (Journey North).

Topics: Finite-state syntax in birdsong. Discussion of Honda & Okanoya 1999 reading. In-class problems using Praat.

Class:

• Finish up discussion of combinatorial structure in Song Sparrow song (from last time).
• From raw data to labelled corpus, using Praat's "label and segment" feature and the Bengalese Finch .wav file (on Blackboard; courtesy of K. Okanoya)
• From labelled corpus to transition matrix.
• From transition matrix to transition diagram ("Moore machine")

• For Monday, February 27: Read Kroodsma 2005:255-267 (song syntax in the Hermit Thrush), and listen to the accompanying sound file (Blackboard).
• For Friday, March 3: Do HW 4 (reminder: you should do this with your partner.)

Topics: Birdsong. Discussion of Catchpole & Slater 1995 reading.

Class:

• Songs and calls. Examples from Black-Capped Chickadees (Parus atracapillus) (Journey North)
• Song types
• The song repertoire of a Song Sparrow (Melospiza melodia) (Kroodsma 2005:59-60, Track 17). Structure and communicative function.

• Read Honda & Okanoya 1999, and listen to the accompanying sound files (courtesy of K. Okanoya). (On Blackboard.)
• Install the JFLAP state-machine simulator, and check that you can run it. Try here if that link doesn't work.

Topics: Midterm 1. Discussion of Hockett 1960, comparative structure of communication systems.

Class

• Go over MT 1.
• Discussion of Hockett (1960) article
  • "Language in a nutshell" handout
  • Vocal repertoire of the Western Meadowlark ( Birds of North America site, Cornell University)
  • Alternatives to language?

• Read Catchpole & Slater 1995, Chapter 8, Sections 1-3 (pp. 163-173) (Blackboard)

Topics: Midterm 1, on acoustics, anatomy, and physiology of vocal production in primates and oscines.

Class:

• Take midterm.

• Read Hockett 1960 article (Blackboard).

Topics: Songbird vocal anatomy and physiology.

Class:

• Source
  • Oscine syrinx (Suthers 1999). Images here (G. Ritichison).
    • Uni- and bilateral phonation (Suthers 1999): unilateral, sequential, alternating, independent
    • Amplitude modulation by
      • Slower pulsing by respiratory muscles
      • Beating btween nearby L and R fundamentals
      • Rapid pulsing of R syrinx
      • Other possibilities (Nowicki & Capranica 1986)
• Filter: Suprasyringeal vocal tract
  • Trachea (Daley & Goller 2004)
  • Larynx (Bock 1978)
  • Mouth, tongue, and beak (Hoese et al. 2000; Nelson et al. 2005, Riede et al. 2006)
• Review questions for Midterm 1

Topics: HW 3. Songbird vocal anatomy and physiology.

Class:

• Discussion of HW 3
  • Human language and non-human primate vocal tracts
  • Bilateral phonation in the song of the American Robin
• Oscine vocal anatomy and physiology (handout on Blackboard)
  • Lungs and air sacs (G. Ritchison, Eastern Kentucky University)
  • Oscine syrinx (Suthers 1999). Images here (G. Ritichison).
  • Suprasyringeal VT: trachea, larynx (Bock 1978), mouth, tongue, beak.
• Birdsong examples to accompany Suthers 1999:
  • Waterslager canaries (Song Breed Canaries Resource Page)
  • Brown Thrasher, Gray Catbird, Northern Cardinal, Brown-Headed Cowbird (J. W. Hardy, Florida Museum of Natural History)
  • More Northern Cardinal vocalizations, more like what you hear around here (On Naturesongs.com page).

Topics: Human vocal-tract evolution. Discussion of Boe et al. 2002. Midterm syllabus.

Class:

• The genus Homo.
• The "human revolution" and the speech hypothesis.
• Discussion of Boe et al. 2002 on the Neanderthal vowel space. A picture of La Ferrassie I (Wikipedia).
• Syllabus for Midterm 1 (next Friday).
• How birds breathe (see web page here).

Assignment for Monday, February 11:

• Read Suthers 1999.
• Continue working on HW 3.
• Look over the midterm syllabus, come prepared with questions.

Topics: Comparative primate vocal anatomy and physiology: the supralaryngeal filter. Further discussion of Hauser 1996 reading.

Class:

• Handout: Comparative supralaryngeal anatomy (on Blackboard for copyright reasons). Lips, tongue, teeth, velum.
• Example of the chacma baboon (Owren et al. 1997).
• Hand out and go over HW 3.
• Time permitting: Perfors 2005 on human names and attractiveness.
• Return HW 2.

• Finish Boe et al. reading for Friday the 8th.
• HW 3 due Monday the 11th.

Topics: Comparative primate vocal anatomy and physiology: the laryngeal source . Relation to structure of vocal communication system. Discussion of Hauser 1996 reading.

Class:

• Why do linguists care about non-human primates (NHPs)?
• Comparative primate vocal anatomy
  • Handout: Comparative laryngeal anatomy. (On Blackboard, since it's full of copyrighted images.)
  • Source (larynx)
    • Larynx in throat and an explanation of phonation
    • The larynx in action (very graphic movies!)
    • Human-like phonation in NHPs
    • Other modes (noise, sinusoids, chirps; ingressive airstream). Rhesus-macaque examples can be heard here (M. Hauser).
  • Filter
    • Laryngeal air sacs (NHPs only); see photo here
    • (Other filter parameters left for Wednesday)
• Phonetic potential of NHP vs. human vocal tract?

• Begin reading the Boe et al. 2002 article for Friday, February 8 (Blackboard). This is a moderately difficult article; I recommend an early start.

Topics: Perturbation theory, backness, and F2. Vowel spaces. HW 2.

Class:

• Backness and F2
  • Synthetic demo of F2 being varied:
    • With F1 low (high vowels).
    • With F1 middling (mid vowels).
    • With F1 high (low vowels).
• HW 2
  • Main points:
    • Source/filter independence
    • Relationship between size on the one hand, F0 and formants on the other
    • Relation between vowel articulation, F1, and F2
  • Sheep/lamb measurements (not all possible!)
  • Interpretation
  • Human vowel space
  • Why do sheep say ``baa''?

• Read Hauser 1996:175-186 (Blackboard). Some questions to think about for next time:
  • In what way do other primates' vocal capabilites exceed or fall short of humans'?
  • Do differences in anatomy correlate with differences in use of that anatomy in communication?
  • Are any of the primate examples Hauser discusses related to Fitch and Reby's red deer case?
• Consult this overview of the primates to situate the species he discusses in the family tree (D. O'Neil).
• Listen to examples of some of the vocalizations.
  • Vervets, rhesus macaques, and chimpanzees can be heard here (M. Hauser).
  • A Hapalemur griseus call can be heard here (Duke Primate Center).

Topics: Perturbation theory, vowel height, and F1.

Class:

• Basic vocal-tract landmarks. Chiba & Kajiyama 1941 figure (J figure 6.7).
• Didier Demolin's vowel articulations (Ladefoged)
• Height
  • Articulation
  • Acoustic effect of oral vs. pharyngeal constriction on F1
  • Psychological effect of F1 on perceived vowel height
    • F1 varying through schwa.
    • F1 varying through [i].
• Consequences of non-human primate vocal anatomy for F1 control. Paper handout from Fitch 2002.

• Finish HW 2.
• Bring mirrors one last time.

Topics: Perturbation theory, illustrated with rounding.

Class:

• Nodes and antinodes.
• Demonstration and simulation (W. Fendt).
• Perturbation theory and the minimax rule (note error on p. 109 of the Johnson reading!)
• Some low-tech ways of observing your articulators
• Vowel features
• Rounding
• Effect of rounding on vowel formants
  • Lowering schwa formants by 20%.
  • Lowering [i] formants by 20%.
• Handout on red-deer formant measurements.

• Bring a hand mirror to class next time.
• Keep working on HW2.

Topics: Fitch & Reby 2001. Recording. Partner assignments.

Class:

• Discussion of Fitch & Reby 2001
  • Audio of red-deer roar here
  • Anatomical basis
  • Sexual dimorphism of vocal tract and of formants
    • In red deer (Fitch & Reby 2001)
    • In humans (Fitch & Giedd 1999; Gonzalez 2004)
  • Why adaptive?
• Recording speech with Praat
  • A helpful handout.
  • Sign up here to use the soundproof booth in Dey 103.

• For Monday, January 28: Read Johnson 2003, Chapter 6, Section 2, and Ladefoged 2003, Chapter 11 (Blackboard).
• For Monday, January 28: Bring a hand mirror to class.
• For Friday, February 1: Do Homework 2 with your partner(s).

Topics: Schwa formants and vocal-tract length. Descended larynx in humans and others.

Class:

• Schwa formants and their relation to vocal-tract length.
• About how long is this speaker's vocal tract?
• Position of larynx and velum in humans (Fitch 2002, Figure 1 and 2)
  • X-ray movie of human vocalization.
  • X-ray movie of human swallowing.
• Discussion of Fitch 2000 on the temporarily descended larynx in non-human species (dogs, pigs, goats, cotton-top tamarins)

• Read Fitch & Reby 2001 (on Blackboard)
  • Points to concentrate on (not an assignment to turn in):
    • Why to F&R care where the larynx is in deer?
    • Where is it, and how do they know?
    • Why do they think larynx height communicates something? What might it communicate?
    • Larynx location is sexually dimorphic, i.e., different in male and female deer. Why might that be?
    • What, if anything, is the connection between deer and people?
  • Things not to worry about: Details of methodology and statistical tests. Details of anatomy (muscles and so on).
• Hear a red deer roar here. If you want to view it in Praat, try the following spectrogram settings: View Range 0 to 2000 Hz, Window Length 0.05s.
• See it here.

Topics: Resonances of a half-open tube; formants of schwa.

Class:

• Reprise:
  • Source/filter model of mammalian vocalization
  • Effect of tubular filter on source (glottal) spectrum
• Echoes in the half-open tube (audio)
• Destructive and constructive interference
• Resonant frequencies: F1, F2, F3, ...

Assignment for Wednesday, January 23: Read

• Fitch, W. Tecumseh. 2000. The phonetic potential of nonhuman vocal tracts: comparative cineradiographic observations of vocalizing animals. Phonetica 57(2-4):205-218. (On Blackboard.)

Topics: Source/filter theory. Empirical filtering properties of half-open tube.

Class:

• Source/filter reprise
• Demonstration of acoustic filtering by half-open tube
• Spectrum of schwa
  • Glottal waveform, F0 = 100 Hz (similar to Johnson Figures 5.1 and 5.2)
  • Synthetic schwa made from that glottal wave.
  • Glottal wave heard through a 17.7-cm uniform tube (as done in class).
  • Schwa glissando: Fundamental and harmonics change, formants stay the same.
  • Diphthong: Formants change, fundamental and harmonics stay the same.
  • Low-tech source-filter synthesis: Buzzing lips, then buzzing lips into 17.7-cm tube.