Tarski himself thought that his semantical
method could not be applied to a natural language, for the two reasons
that Davidson highlights on p. 104. The second reason (that formalizing
a natural language might not "preserve its naturalness") is not compelling,
but the first reason, the Liar Paradox as emphasized by Andrea A., is serious:
So long as the Liar is unattended to, a Davidsonian truth definition for
English will itself contain a contradiction.
Here's what Davidson means about
"universality": Tarski had kept the Liar out of formalized languages
by stipulating that no formal language is allowed to contain its own
truth predicate. If you have a formal language L1 and you want
to call one of L1's sentences true or false, you can't do so in L1 itself;
L1 is not allowed to contain any term that means "true in L1." Rather,
you must speak in a metalanguage, say L2, which contains quote-names of
L1 sentences and also the term "true-in-L1." If you want to predicate
truth or falsity of an L2 sentence, you can do so only in a higher-level
language L3, and so on. Thus, a hierarchy of metalanguages for formal
systems. But Tarski insisted that natural languages are not stratified
in this way. "True" and "false" are just more words of English, and
apply within English to English. English is just one language, and
all English words are English, so the Liar remains a paradox.
Davidson makes two responses to the
problem. (1) Most of the semantical questions and issues arising
in the analysis of a natural language (definite descriptions, belief sentences,
comparative constructions, adverbs, funny modal operators,...) do not involve
truth, and illuminating solutions to such problems can be found irrespective
of the Liar. (2) Tarskian universality is suspect, precisely because
it is implicated in the Liar Paradox.
I mentioned a third response in class:
that the Liar Paradox is a paradox in its own right. As such,
it's everybody's problem, not a contradiction specially generated by Davidson's
Tarskian sort of theory of meaning for English. Possible rejoinder:
I can do philosophy in other areas (ethics, philosophy of mind, aesthetics,
philosophy of sport) without ever coming near the Liar Paradox. But
Davidson's theory by its nature, precisely because truth is its centerpiece
and it consists of trying to do just what Tarski warned against, runs smack
into the paradox; it runs right up to the Liar and yells "Bring `em on."
If you do that, you do need to have some good line on the Liar.
I've never been sure about that rejoinder.
What do you think?
In my Davidsonian book, Logical
Form in Natural Language (1984), I contented myself with a combination
of response (1) above and an incomplete gesture toward my own later solution
to the paradox. I have since produced that solution (“A Truth Predicate
in the Object Language,” MS). It is a hierarchical solution with
many fine qualities, and it avoids the standard objections to hierarchical
solutions. But I haven't published it, because my colleague Keith
Simmons (who is one of the world's leading experrts on the semantical paradioxes)
found a nasty flaw in it that I have not yet been able to repair.
Here now is a fourth, nonDavidsonian
response to the Liar objection to Davidson: English is indeed "universal"
and contains its own truth predicate. So English is inconsistent,
and so is any Tarskian-Davidsonian theory of meaning for English.
But inconsistency is not as bad we might have thought. The great
fear has always been that, since a contradiction entails anything (A &
-A /- B is provable in classical logic), every contradictory theory is
the same, equivalent to the set of all truths and all falsehoods.
If you accept a contradiction, you in effect accept every proposition there
is, the false and the contradictory as well as the true, and rational discourse
collapses. But that is no longer true. Logicians in (as you
might guess) Australia have developed a nonclassical logic called paraconsistent
logic, which tolerates contradictions so long as the contradictions are
in a certain way walled off where they can do no harm. The point
of paraconsistent logic is to block the "contradiction explosion" inference
from A & -A to any irrelevant proposition B. So, even if your
theory does contain a contradiction, the contradiction is in a maximum-security
prison and not running amok in the streets; rational discourse can continue.
Davidson himself would have hated
the very thought of paraconsistent logic; he was very conservative about
classical logic and didn't even like elementary modal logic. But
paraconsistent logic has other, less controversial uses and is, I think,
here to stay.
To be fair, it's not quite that easy.
If we ally ourselves to this fourth, paraconsistency response, we are still
admitting that the actual world contains a true contradiction (the
Liar sentence itself), which is still a shocker even if the contradiction
does no widespread harm. A few philosophers, most notably Graham
Priest at the University of Melbourne, are quite happy with the idea, but
Keith Simmons and our own graduate student Greg Littman have argued subtly
against it. References upon request.