English 11.67
Unit 2: Summaries
created by Feeder 2A for use in Feeder 2B & Unit Project 2

British Control: Historical Events & Lasting Irish Grievance

Poyning's Law (Kirsten Ahlstrom)

Edward Poyning was originally from England but had to leave very quickly after taking part in a failed revolt against King Richard III in 1483. While in exile Poyning fled to Europe, where he joined the followers of Henry Tudor, earl of Richmond, who in 1485 ascended the English throne as Henry VII. Henry VII, a Lancastrian was the first Tudor king and he appointed Sir Edward Poyning as his deputy. Henry VII had become dissatisfied with the Yorkist stronghold so he appointed English-born officials to various posts in the council. He sent Sir Edward Poyning there as lord deputy, to reduce the country to 'whole and perfect obedience' and to prevent Yorkist pretenders from using it as a base. Poyning first landed at Howth, with a thousand men as part of some scheme to fill the chief Irish offices with Englishman. Poyning was supposed to lead an expeditionary force straight to Ulster to suppress chieftains who had resisted the first invasion of Ireland. Poyning abandoned the Ulster invasion and instead turned south, and proceeded to Drogheda where he summoned a parliament which proved to be one of the most momentous in Irish history. Parliament met on the First of December 1494 at the old Tholsel or Castle of Comfort in the Bull Ring. Parliament enacted statutes for the further anglicization of the Irish government. The most important act passed was called "Poyning's Law". This stated that no law could be passed before the parliament of Ireland without first having been approved by the King and his council in England and by the deputy and his council in Ireland. The law mattered little at the time but became very important later when the Irish Parliament legislated for the entire country. After his return in 1496 to England, Poyning had military and diplomatic posts and was warden of the Cinque Ports. Poyning's Law is part of the Drogheda statutes of 1494 that provided that the English Privy Council must give previous assent to the summoning of an Irish Parliament and to the introduction of any specific legislation in the Irish Parliament, and that all laws passed in England should apply to Ireland. Its purpose was to try and make it impossible to have a free Irish Parliament. Thus Ireland was made subservient to English rule; this act also prevented any foreign nations from attacking England through Ireland’s borders. The act was totally repealed in 1782 by Henry Grattan, making the Irish parliament independent once again.

Reference Section:
1. Poyning’s Law 1494. “Wikipedia. 2003”. Last used: October 4, 2004
http://www.nationmaster.com/ encyclopedia/Poyning’s Law 1494.
2. Statutes at Large, Ireland, I, 44: 10 Henry VII, c. 4. 73. HENRY VII: STATUTES
3. http://education.yahoo.com/reference/encyclopedia/entry?id=36511
4. The Colombia Encyclopedia Sixth Edition. See Under: Poynings Copyright © 2003
Columbia University Press; October 2, 2004

The Penal Laws (Victoria Allen)

According to the Columbia encyclopedia, the penal laws refer generally to a body of discriminatory and oppressive legislation directed against Roman Catholics but also against Protestant nonconformists. During the late 17th century, Ireland’s official religion was Protestant but only a minority group practiced it; the majority of Irish people were Catholics. There are two main ways to look at the reason behind the penal laws. One is that the penal laws were formed to convert all of Ireland to Protestants; however no great measures were taken to make sure this actually happened. The second way is that the penal laws were designed, by the Irish Parliament filled with landowning Protestants, to decrease the political power of landowning Irish Catholics.

There were several penal laws enacted between 1695 and 1709 that targeted Catholics exclusively. In 1695 the laws passed prohibited the Catholics from sending their children abroad to receive education, starting schools in their home, bearing arms, being recruited in the army, or owning a horse worth more than £5. The next act passed was the Banishment act of 1697 which banned all papists exercising any ecclesiastical jurisdiction and all regulars of the popish clergy out of the kingdom. An act was passed to bar a marriage between a Catholic and a Protestant. In 1699 Catholics were disallowed from being solicitors and prevented from exporting woolens to foreign posts.

Over time, the penal laws began to target more than just Catholics solely; they began to target men of power. All military, clergymen, and office-holders were bound to stricter oath through the Arbitration act of 1703. During 1704 the English Parliament passed laws forbidding the increasing development of popery. The Catholics were not allowed to purchase land, take a lease for longer than thirty one years, or act as a guardian. If a Catholic landowner died, the land was divided equally among the sons, unless the eldest son conformed to the official church, in which case he [the eldest son] would receive all the land. A sacramental and registration test was introduced in 1704 also. The sacramental test forced all office-holding citizens to take part in communion under the official church of Ireland. The registration test obliged all Catholic priests to register in court, to furnish two securities of £50 each, to act according to the laws, and not leave the country that they registered in. An act that allowed direct export of Irish linen to British colonies was enacted in 1705. In 1709 an Oath of Abjuration was required from registered priests, rejecting claims of exiled Stuarts to the thrones of Ireland and England. These laws were enforced until the late 18th century when help was needed in wars and the religious passion of England died down.

Works Cited
“ Penal Laws”. Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. 2004. Columbia Encyclopedia. 3 Oct. 2004. <http://education.yahoo.com/reference/encyclopedia/entry?id=36511>.
Doherty, J.E. A Chronology of Irish History Since 1500. Savage, Md.: Barnes & Noble
Books, 1990.
Ciaran, Brady. The Encyclopedia of Ireland. NY: Helicon Publishing, 2000.
Newman, Peter R. Companion to Irish History 1603-1921. Oxford; NY: Facts On File, 1991.
Lalor, Brian. The Encyclopedia of Ireland. Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 2003.

Wolf Tone & the United Irishmen Uprising (Rhyn Chung)

Wolfe Tone, a radical, was inspired by the French revolution in 1789. Hoping to reform the British government and create in Ireland a society where protestant and catholic have equity, he founded the Society of United Irishmen. The military help France was willing to give and the encouraging writing of Thomas Paine from America changed the characteristic of the United Irishmen to a radical and a revolutionary group. The British government was suspicious of this radical group and started to suppress the United Irishmen when France declared war against the British. The death of a French agent, William Jackson, and the suspicion of the government towards Tone convinced him to exile to America in 1795. By 1796, Tone was in France convincing the French government to send the fleets to Ireland. Tone succeeded in convincing the French; however the bad weather prohibited the fleets from landing. Encouraged by the help from Tone and the French, the United Irishmen started to expand. The British government felt threatened and started arresting the leaders which led to the rebellion of 1798. At first, Dublin, the capital of the United Irishmen movement, failed to rise because the power of the government was too strong. The first triumph in Wexford, where the government did not consider being a rebellious town, stimulated the rebellion to spread across the Ireland. Unfortunately, the British government responded with more power, arresting and executing the United Irishmen, which caused the rebellion to settle down. Tone, who heard the rebellion was breaking down, went to the French directory and persuaded them to invade Ireland. At the time, the French did not have many troops to offer because most of them were in Egypt. When the French directory was sending troops to Ireland the rebellion was losing support from the Irish. The lack of Irish support and the small number of troops caused the first invasion by general Humbert to surrender on 8th September, 1798 in Ballinamuck . General Hardy and Tone led the second invasion. Similar to the first invasion, the French troops were defeated and captured. Tone was also captured during the battle. While the French were honored as prisoners of war and sent back to France, the Irish who were captured were jailed and executed. Tone was tried, found guilty in court and scheduled to be executed on 12th November. Tone petitioned to the Lord-Lieutenant but was rejected. In the morning of his execution date, Tone committed suicide which signaled the end of the rebellion of 1798.

Works Cited
Ganse, Alexander. (2003). World History at KMLA. The Irish Rebellion of 1798 . Retrieved
October 3, 2004, from http://www.zum.de/whkmla/military/napwars/ireland1798.html
MacDermot, Frank Theobald Wolfe Tone A Biographical Study London” MacMillan and Co
1939
Musgrave, Richard. Memoirs of the different rebellion in Ireland. Indiana: Round Tower Books, 1995.
Poirteir and Carthal. eds. The Great Irish Rebellion of 1798. Colorado: Radio Telefis Eireann, 1998.
Smyth, Jim Revolution, counter-revolution and union Ireland in the 1790’s. Cambridge:
University of Cambridge Press, 2000.

Act of Union between Great Britain & Ireland (Amanda Corner)

The Act of Union between Great Britain and Ireland was established on January 1, 1801 for the purpose of uniting Great Britain and Ireland for 120 years under one central parliament and one name; the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801 Act, par 1). Ireland hoped to gain many things from this merger such as escaping its large debts, relieving itself of the growing division between the Anglicans and the Non-Anglicans (Catholics and Presbyterians), and escaping the effects of the recent Irish Rebellion of 1798 (Sullivan 8). The British Prime Minister William Pitt, decided to write this union soon after the rebellion which caused him to realize that some sort of governmental control needed to be put into effect (Bardon, par 5). Under The Union, it was declared that Ireland would benefit from the union with things such as equal representation in Parliament and free trade. From the outset, the main goal of both Ireland and Great Britain was figuring out how to handle the religious issues. Pitt had hoped to include a stipulation declaring there be an emancipation of the Irish Catholics within Ireland. As Pitt stated, “Without the emancipation, we will gain the country, but lose the people” (Bardon, par 6). However, once seeing the emancipation, the monarch George III vehemently opposed the inclusion and said it would be, “a breach of his Coronation Oath.” He also felt that “an American-style independence” would soon result; one thing Great Britain could not withstand again. Pitt removed the emancipation, but his intentions still were to somehow pass the emancipation immediately after the union (Brown 231). King George did not tell the Catholics of Ireland that the emancipation was not guaranteed, but rather he left the ambiguity in The Union so as to coax the Irish into accepting the act and passing it (Sullivan 9). The Act of Union was soon after put into effect and Ireland was thus incorporated into the British legal ways, taking on laws that applied to the British and also still being allowed to establish its own laws (Brown 225). This, however, was not the problem with The Union. Much turmoil ensued beginning when King George officially refused to pass the Emancipation of the Catholics, thereby losing the support of the majority of the Irish, and also losing his Prime Minister. William Pitt resigned on February 3, 1801, merely 2 months after the Union (Bardon, par 8). Divisions between political parties and religious affiliations grew larger; the exact opposite of the Union’s intention. Needless to say, the Union didn’t last the entire 120 years that was intended, but rather ended in 1867 after the Fenians’ Rebellion and the defeat of the British (History, par 8).

Works Cited
“ 1801 Act of Union.” Wikipedia. 2003. Wikipedia. 4 Oct. 2004 <http://www.nationmaster.com/ encyclopedia/1801-Act-of-Union>.
Bardon, Jonathan. “The Act of Union.” The Centre for Data Digitisation and Analysis. 2003. 4 Oct. 2004 <www.actofunion.ie/printableactofunion.htm>.
Brown, Michael ed., Patrick M. Geoghegan ed., and James Kelley ed., The Irish Act of Union, 1800. Portland: Academic Press, 2003.
“ History of Ireland.” Irelandstory.com. 1998. Ireland Story. 4 Oct. 2004 <www.irelandstory.com/past/history/18001877.html>.

Relief Act/"Catholic Emancipation" (Sandeep Daiya)

Though the process of political freedom for Catholics has been a long and arduous process, the Relief Act was the beginning of liberation for Catholics from the injustice and oppression suffered at the hands of Protestants in both England and Ireland. From the time of Oliver Cromwell’s conquest of England and its surrounding territories, the Catholic population suffered from discrimination in all walks of life. Non-Anglicans were not allowed to hold public office or take any part in government. They were also banned from voting and owning land

The process of Catholic emancipation started in 1791 when the first Act for Catholic Relief was passed giving Catholics the right to own property. They were finally allowed to vote. Though the Relief Act of 1791 marked a great step in the removal of Catholic grievances regarding political freedom, Catholic emancipation was again hindered when Ireland and Great Britain merged in 1801. Ireland was initially granted a limited number of representatives in the United Parliament, but the King of England blocked the petition of Catholics to have full freedom because he believed it went against the oath that he took when he became the king. Accordingly, the idea of Catholic freedom was put on hold.

The next revolution intensified under the leadership of Daniel O’ Connell, who was significant in the fight for Catholic freedom. He was a very influential man who ran for the House of Commons. He ran for office in 1828 and though he won, he was not allowed to fulfill the requirements of his position because there were still many restrictions placed on the positions Catholics could hold in the Governments of both Ireland and England. He ran again in 1829 and won, and this time the Catholics protested so fiercely that the chancellor was forced to introduce the Relief Act of 1829. The introduction of the Relief Act by the chancellor resulted from the threat of an Irish Catholic revolt that would have resulted in disastrous consequences for the Protestants in Ireland. Under its provisions, Catholics were admitted to Parliament and to corporations. However, they were still excluded from some of the higher offices, both civil and military, in both England and Ireland.

Though many restrictions were lifted, inequality and oppression still existed. The Protestant rulers of the United Kingdom still tried to discriminate against the Catholics by limiting the number of voters that could vote in the parliamentary elections and the number of Catholics that could hold high offices. Until relatively recently, there had continued to be a lot of fighting between the Protestants and the Catholics in Ireland which stemmed from the inequality that the Catholics had suffered from the mid-seventeenth century until the mid-nineteenth century. Though the Relief Acts provided some relief to Catholics in their political motivations, there still continues to be much fighting between the two religions.

Works Cited
Elliot, Marianne. The Catholics of Ulster (A History). Penguin Press, 2000. Pages 271-272
Ferral O’ Fergus. Catholic Emancipation: Daniel O’ Connell and the Birth of Irish Democracy.
Gill and Macmillan, 1985. Page 239.
Lee, Nicholas. http://www.ganesha-publishing.com/irish/catholic_irish.htm. “The Catholic
Question in Ireland”. Intro
Wohl, Anthony. http://www.victorianweb.org/religion/cath2.html. “Catholic Emancipation”
“ Catholic Emancipation”. Wikipedia online encyclopedia. 2004. Wikipedia encyclopedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Relief_Act%2C_1778.

Potato Famine (Rachel Dent)

The Irish Potato Famine, also known as the “Black 47,” caused devastation to the country as a whole. With over two million of the population either immigrated to another country or dead, this event changed Ireland forever.

By 1845, blight, a disease caused by a fungus that is carried by wind, rain, and insects, had infected and wiped out Ireland’s potato crops. This would not have been so much of a problem if they had other means of food supply, but “the potato was the predominant item on their diet.”(Donnelly 43) Ireland had other provisions or alternatives, but the food they did produce was exported to other countries. Money was more important to the British government than the people. Not only were the Irish starving, but because of their destroyed crops, they no longer had a way of earning an income. Rent became almost impossible to pay which meant many were left with out homes.

The famine caused much suffering and hardship to the people of Ireland. The potato crisis caused an escalation in the rate of death. Hunger and diseases like smallpox, measles, and fever were the reasons for many of their deaths. Even though deaths were high in Ireland, it was not the only reason for the decrease in population. Many people became fed up with the way things were in Ireland so they left. “Between 1845 and 1855, some 2.1 million people left Ireland,” and out of the 2.1 million, 1.5 million went to the United States. (Donnelly 179) The ships that took the Irish to their destinations were called “Coffin Ships” because many died on their way to their objective. Though many people fled Ireland, a lot of people “stayed true to their homeland” and endured through the hardship (Wright).

The British government tried to instate a Famine Relief System. They thought they were helping out the Irish by giving them Indian corn meal. The problem with this system was that there was a difference in proportions from before. When there used to be 10 pounds of potatoes for an adult male to eat, there was now a one-day ration of only one pound of corn meal. Not only were they receiving inadequate amounts of rations but it also cost them money which was something the Irish people did not have.

One simple crop, a potato, had the ability to turn a country into a complete disaster. The government tried to instate a plan to help the people, but it didn’t work because over 2 million people died, and another 2 million emigrated away.

Works Cited

Donnelly, James S. The Great Irish Potato Famine. Sutton Publishing, 2001
Daly, Mary E. The Famine in Ireland. Dundalgan Press, 1986
Kissane, Noel. The Irish Famine. National Library of Ireland. 1995
Mark, Ruth. What Was the Irish Potato Famine?. PageWise, Inc, 2002,
www.scsc.essortment.com/whatwasirishp_rhhn.htm
Wright, Karis. Ireland: The Great Famine. www.humboldt1.com/~history/lexiso

Easter Rebellion (Justin Dobies)

In 1858, the Irish Republican Brotherhood was formed. In 1914 the brotherhood introduced the idea of an Irish insurrection (1916). “Until Easter Week 1916 the active members of the IRB were fully occupied in mounting this revolution.” (1916) Having no firepower due to English rule Ireland had to look to Germany for weapons. Sir Rodger Casement was sent to Germany from America to acquire the arms. On April 21, 1916 Casement landed in Ireland and was immediately arrested by British police and the guns were confiscated (1916). In receiving word of this, Eoin MacNeill one of the leaders immediately announced that the insurrection was to be no more. MacNeill had boys ride all over the country announcing the news and even told newspapers that Sunday there was to be no rising (1916). Patrick Pearse and other leaders ignored MacNeill and continued to follow the original plans. At noon on April 24, 1916 groups of volunteers and the citizen’s army took control of five major buildings in Dublin. “The General Post Office was occupied by Connolly, Pearse, Clark and MacDermott where Pearse read the Proclamation. The Four Courts and adjoining Mendicity Institution were occupied by Volunteer Commandant Edward Daly and Sean Heuston. St Stephen’s Green, by Michael Mallin and Constance Markiewicz, both of the Citizen Army. Jacob’s Factory, by MacDonagh and Major John MacBride. The South Dublin Union, by Eamonn Ceannt and Cathal Brugha. Boland’s Mills and area from Mount Street Bridge to Westland Row Station, by force under Edward de Valera.” (Edwards 32) While having caught the British off guard and taking these buildings successfully, not such luck came with the attack on the Dublin Castle. The troops attack failed and the British were notified of The Easter Rising. With this notification orders came directly out of London from Lord French that no less than four divisions be sent to Ireland. In the days to follow the commencement of the rebellion British troops began moving in on the rebel’s locations. By that Thursday the rebel troops were outnumbered twenty to one (1916). April 28, 1916 the “arrival of General Sir John Maxwell as supreme commander in Ireland.”(Edwards 32) With orders from the British Prime Minister Maxwell destroyed Dublin and everything in his path, leaving Dublin in ruins. Eventually the British troops killed so many rebels and civilians that Pearse ordered a general surrender. The rebellion ended. On May 2, 1916 the leaders of the rebellion were sentenced to execution. Beginning on May 3 and days to follow the leaders were executed by firing squads (Edwards 32). News of these executions was not reported to Ireland until the day after. The majority of people in Ireland did not support the rebellion. It was only after the executions that the leaders and people fought the British were looked upon as heroes. The rebellion although a complete failure compelled people in the following years to stand up and fight against the English for their freedom.

Works Cited
Edwards, Dudley O., Fergis Pyle . 1916 The Easter Rising . London: Macgibbon and Kee 1968
Caulfield, Max . The Easter Rebellion . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963
“ 1916 The Rebellion.” Irish Jokes An Alternative Web Site .
http://users.bigpond.net.au/kirwilli/1916/

"The Troubles" (Corey Eaton)

On October 5, 1968 the Derry march commenced in Derry, Ireland. This march was organized to draw attention to many grievances the people of the city had with the government. Some of these grievances were related to housing, employment and electoral practices. The government ordered a ban on all marches and demonstrations on that day. When the marchers showed up the police charged the crowd with batons. Subsequent television coverage sparked a revolt in the city, which is considered the start of the troubles in Ireland. (Cain)

The necessity of avoiding a confrontation with the Protestants, with its implication of greater military involvement was the major influence on governmental policy by 1970. The army was appointed tactical control over the nation but failed to prevent the growth of the IRA, the Irish Republican Army. Faulkner, the head of the army, thought that a swift, aggressive conclusion to the troubles was the best policy. He thought that by using military force and quelling any riots quickly he could stem the rebellion of the Irish people. (Bew 167)

Bloody Sunday occurred on January 30, 1972. Unarmed and peaceful marchers in Bogside Derry were protesting the governmental policy of internment without trial or due process of law. Soldiers from the British army’s First Parachute Regiment opened fire on the crowd killing 13 people leading to increased support, through sympathy and outrage, for the rebellion. (larkSpirit)

On May 15, 1974 the Ulster Workers Council Strike occurred in protest to the political and security situation in Northern Ireland. This strike lasted a total of two weeks and succeeded in bringing down the power sharing Northern Ireland Executive and acquiring some of the Northern Ireland people’s demands for more political control realized. This strike succeeded because of support from key industries such as gas, petroleum, and power generation. The sense of alienation felt by the protestant community and the slack response of the British Government also led to the increased efficiency of this strike. (Cain)

Another such strike occurred in 1981 in a prison in Northern Ireland. This strike was labeled the Hunger Strike because Bobby Sands, leader of the IRA, and other inmates refused to eat from march 1st to October 3rd. Their goals were prison reform and the increase of international sympathy for the plight of the Northern Irish people. Resulted in Sands and 2 other inmates election to parliament, and many of their goals being realized. (Cain)

One of the more recent events occurred on October 23, 1993, and was labeled the Shakill Road Bombing because it occurred in a fish shop located on Shakill road. A member of the IRA planted a bomb in the fish-shop which killed 10 people and injured over 57, of whom were many innocent bystanders, instead of the UFF members he had targeted. This bombing led to a retaliation from the UFF who killed 27 people by the end of the month. They walked into stores and public gatherings and randomly killed anyone they saw. (Hennessey 286)

Works Cited
Bew, Paul. Northern Ireland. United Kingdom: Rowman and Littlefield 2nd Edition, 1999
Hennessey, Thomas. A History of Northern Ireland. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2000
“ Key Events of the Northern Ireland Conflict.” Cain Web Service. 1996. <http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events>
“ Remembering Bloody Sunday.” LarkSpirit. 1997 <http://larkspirit.com/bloodysunday/>

British Enforced "Immigration"

Early English Colonialism in Ireland (Richard Haywood)

At the end of the twelfth century and at the beginning of the thirteenth century, Gaelic culture dominated all of Ireland. The Anglo-Norman invasion allowed the British to begin settling in Ireland in the late 1200’s (Nichols 3).Towns and villages were set up, and resembled the towns and villages found in England (15). The greatest example of the English culture’s influence was in art and architecture. The parish church of St. Mary’s was the first gothic church built in Ireland (Moody 149). The British also influenced the government and legal system of Ireland. The courts in Ireland were similar to the ones found in England, which was completely different from the Gaelic days. The English were able to enlarge the civil service and system of administration. They set up towns and villages to begin a new government in Ireland of electing representatives to the parliament which began in 1297 (145). The government was completely separate from England’s government; however, England handled all of the important affairs (Shearman 21). The new government and legal system provided stability and caused the British colony in Ireland to become productive, an example of this were the great sums of money, estimated at around £450 annually, that the English kings collected from the colony (Moody 149). The English influenced the social life of the Irish through its manorial system, which were solidly structured village communities only populated by peasants or people of English descent. This led the Gaels, who did not convert to the English way of life, into the forest and mountainous regions of Ireland (Nicholls 15). Many of the English settlers married into Gaelic families, further ending the Gaelic’s reign in Ireland. The English provided outside world contacts which created more trade opportunities and began an Irish relationship with the medieval papacy (Moody 147). The British colony did not last in Ireland and a reason for the downfall of the British colony was the Black Death. The plague struck all of Europe in the winter of 1348 which caused many of the settlers in Ireland to return to England. The greatest reason for the downfall of the British colony was the Gaelic resurgence. The Gaelic culture continued to exist even through the British colonization by living in the forest and mountain regions of Ireland. The Gaels made a return in all aspects of life that the British had changed, especially socially (151). The Gaelic chieftains in militaristic form were able to drive out the British (155). The turning point in the battles between the Gaels and British was the loss of Richard II to Henry of Lancaster in 1399. Following these events the British colony continued shrinking as Gaelic areas expanded (157).

Works Cited
Moody, T.W, Martin, F.X, ed. The Course of Irish History. Cork, Ireland: The Mercier Press 1966
Nicholls, K.W. Gaelic and Gaelicized Ireland in the Middle Ages. Dublin, Ireland: The Lilliput Press LTD, 2003
Shearman, Hugh. Anglo-Irish Relations London: Faber and Faber.

Tudor Conquest of Ireland (Erin Jones)

The English Reformation (1533-1536) under Henry VIII gave rise in England to increased fears of Catholic invasion, following Henry’s breach with Rome. Control of Ireland thus became even more imperative. During this period Thomas Cromwell received the position of chief minister where he would direct Irish affairs until 1540 (Somerset Fry 109). This signified the “fall of the semi-royal House of Kildare” (Curtis 162). In 1533 a council of pro-English men including the archbishop, John Alen, “sent one of those long representations that were fatal to Kildare” (Curtis 162). Upon deception surrounding the Earl, Thomas, Lord Offaly, surrendered the sword, June 11th, 1534 (Curtis 163). Archbishop Alen was murdered by Offaly’s followers while trying to flee which resulted in Thomas’s excommunication. “This rising showed that the majority of the Irish regarded their country as a papal fief held by the crown of England in virtue of Adrian’s donation” (Curtis 163). Henry made himself the head of the church, as well as state, with the Act of Supremacy (Curtis 167). This policy was opposed by the majority of Irish, although a sufficient amount of the bishops took the supremacy oath. Anglicization was implemented as well as Henry imposed the English language upon the clergy, abolished the monasteries, confiscated lands, established a Protestant “Church of Ireland” and burned relics. But since the vast majority of Irish remained Roman Catholic, religious contention arose adding to the already rancorous Anglo-Irish relations. Henry preferred a conciliation method concerning Ireland in an effort to keep funds out of Ireland. The last Kildare heir became the passion of all Irishmen, in him they found their last hope. Henry’s policy was initially successful as a result of St. Leger a mild enforcer of order in Ireland. In 1556 Mary came to rule beginning her forward policy. She sent the Earl of Sussex to restore the Catholic system and replace St. Leger (Curtis 169). Parliament met in Dublin in 1557 where they absolved Ireland from heresy and confirmed Mary as Queen. With her reign the confiscation and plantation policy became common. The first to undergo this policy were the areas of Leix, Offaly, Clanmalier, and Slievemargy which were opened to planters, whom were controlled greatly by the crown (Curtis 171). Because of the unjust treatment the Irish were experiencing, many native septs rose arms. Mary died in 1558, leaving the crown to Elizabeth, who destroyed Gaelic and feudal Ireland (Curtis 181). Gaelic resistance was based on chieftainship and tanistry. In 1560 the official religion switched yet again back to the Church of England. The Earl of Sussex was to impose this just as he had previously imposed Catholicism; as a result many Irish-Catholics experienced harsh persecution. The crown experienced resistance from the Irish for the next fifty years. Soon Elizabeth would be excommunicated by Pius V (Somerset Fry 120). The Irish rebelled three times during the reign of Elizabeth I and were brutally suppressed. Sir Henry Sidney was instructed to implement the new policy in 1565, establishing “Christ’s Religion,” Munster and Leinster were to be considered under the full authority of England, and English customs were to take precedence to Irish ones and from 1569-1570 his parliament enacted it (Hull 315).

Works Cited
Curtis, Edmund. A History of Ireland. New York: Routledge, 1936.
Hull, Eleanor. A History of Ireland and her People. Dublin: The Phoenix Publishing
Company, 1926.
Somerset Fry, Peter and Fiona. A History of Ireland. London: Routledge. 1988.

Ulster Plantation (Katie Lancaster)

Ulster Plantation, the. Refers to the colonization of North-Ireland Ulster by the English and Scottish settlers in the seventeenth century. The purpose of the Ulster Plantation was to unite Scottish and English settlements in one nation, provide a profit to the king, and secure the nation from foreigners. The Ulster plantation was a result of a plan presented to the King from Sir Frances Bacon in 1606, entitled “Of a Plantation in Ireland.” The total amount of land confiscated by the British government and distributed to the three groups consisted of approximately four million acres in six countries. These six countries included: Donegal, Derry, Tyrone, Fermanagh, Armagh, and Cavan.

The rebellion of Sir Cahir O' Dogherty in April of 1608, along with what is known as the “Flight of the Earls”, were attempts by Irish natives to interrupt the building of the plantation and resist British colonization. These acts were considered treason and provided the British government with excuses for confiscating land and building their plantation. The rebellion also caused an increase in the number of troops in Ireland, recruited in part by Scotland. Many of the men from these troops became settlers in the new lands.

Sir Author Chichester, Lord Deputy of Ireland helped organize the colonization and establishment of this plantation. The confiscated territory was distributed to three main groups: the English and Scottish Undertakers, the Servitors, and the old inhabitants (natives). Another significant portion of 68,000 acres was allotted to the established church, Trinity College. The largest allotments went to the English and Scottish undertakers, to bring settlers to Ireland. These men received grants of 2000 and 1500 acres respectively. The men lived free of rent for two years, but were bound to build a castle, a house of brick or stone, or a court according to their rank. The next group to acquire Ulster land was servitors, or army officials, who were being rewarded for service to the crown in Ireland. These servitors were required to plant with British or Irish only, hold fee-farm, and build and settle within two years. The final group consisted of old inhabitants. These natives were considered “free-holders,” responsible for building strong courts or bawns. They were given free timber, could import necessities for five years, and export produce free of custom for seven years.

Despite careful planning, problems arose in the plantation. Presbyterians suffering under Wentworth's government were forced to follow a rigid High Church system of theology, which required Catholic and Presbyterian alike to attend the Episcopal Church. However, the result of this religious persecution was the unification of Scottish Presbyterian and Irish catholic, brought together by a sense of common wrongs. These two groups intermarried freely, adopting English customs and ways of life.

Works Cited

Hull, Eleanor. A History of Ireland. Dublin: The Phoenix Publishing Company Limited, N.A.
McClain, Miriam Graham. The Rebellion of Sir Cahir O' Dogherty and Its Influence on the Ulster Plantation. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1930.

Cromwellian Invasion

Irish Emigration to Other Countries

"Flight of the Earls" (Caitlin McShane)

The Flight of the Earls was a time in Irish history when Hugh O’Neill and Rory O’Donnell, the Earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnell respectively, departed from Rathmullan in Ireland with the intention of going to Spain. The two Earls departed from Ireland four years after the Nine Years War (1594-1603) in September of 1607 as a result of complications from the war.

The Nine Years War started as an attempt by Hugh O’Neill and Rory O’Donnell to overthrow the English authority over the Irish people. The Spanish agreed to help the Irish because they were also enemies with the English at the time. However, before the Irish were able to join the Spanish, they were defeated in the Battle of Kinsale; and, after nine years of turmoil, the British defeated the Irish on December 24, 1601. After the victory of the English, the Irish lords did not want to acknowledge the English power. The English, therefore, offered the Irish titles, such as “Earl,” to empower them as a bribe to recognize their rule. Still, the Irish lords did not want to submit to English power.

Hugh O’Neill, one of the leaders of the Irish rebellion against the English, believed that he was going to be executed by the newly crowned King James I of England. Thus, Cuchonnacht Maguire thought up a scheme to slip the Earls, their families, and about one hundred other people out of Ireland on a ship to Spain; a plight later known as the “Flight of the Earls.” Terrible storms accompanied by gusty winds prevented the ship from taking the course that would lead them to their intended destination. Thus, the ship never reached Spain. Although Spain had been an ally of the Irish, they became allies with the English shortly after the crowning of James I. As a result, they no longer wished to harbor the Earls. Consequently, the Earls were banished from Ireland and lost all of their land. James I took the lands of the Earls and divided them among the British and Scottish servants and military and those Irish people who chose to join the British during the Nine Years War, creating the Plantation of Ulster. This event led to the division of the island into what is known today as Ireland and Northern Ireland.

Rory O’Donnell died shortly after the Flight of the Earls in 1608 and Hugh O’Neill died about a year later. These two men set in motion a chain of events that had an enormous impact on Irish history and Irish life today.

Works Cited
Carty, James, ed. Ireland from the Flight of the Earls to Grattan’s Parliament. Vol. 1. Dublin: C. J. Fallon Limited, 1949. 3 vols.
“ The Flight of the Earls: A Time That Shaped Our Lives.” The Flight of the Earls. 4 October 2004 <http://www.theflightoftheearls.com/html/mainset.htm>.
“ Flight of the Earls.” Donegal Studies. 4 October 2004 <http://www.donegallibrary.ie/memory/earls.htm>.
“ Flight of the Earls.” Irelandseye.com. 2002. 4 October 2004 <http://www.irelandseye.com/aarticles/history/events/dates/earls.shtm>.
McCavitt, John. The Flight of the Earls. Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 2002.
O’Cianain, Tadhg. The Flight of the Earls. Ed. Rev. Paul Walsh, M.A. Dublin: M. H. Gill and Son, Ltd., 1916.

Departure of "Wild Geese" (Shannon Morrison)

In the past, Irish people have left the country in huge hordes during a number of long periods of migration. One of the earliest examples of these mass evacuations dates back to the seventeenth century when many Irish soldiers and some of their wives and children emigrated from Ireland to other surrounding countries. An ongoing war between William of Orange and King James II, later referred to as the Williamite War, resulted in Ireland’s second largest military emigration of the seventeenth century.

King James II received England’s throne in 1685. As a devout Catholic, he strived to turn all of England Catholic as well. The English Parliament did not want their country’s beliefs to change so they relieved King James of his position in England three years later. The king, in turn, received the throne of Ireland and he continued his crusade in changing his followers’ religion. In 1688, King James, with the help of his Catholic Lord of duty, Richard Talbot (also known as the Duke of Tyroconnel), was able to lead a majority of Protestant Irish natives to Catholicism, despite some opposition.

The Williamite War broke out between King James and his son-in-law William of Orange in 1689. Following Parliament’s order, William of Orange replaced King James II in England and continued to influence all of England with Protestant morals inevitably conflicting with King James’ Catholic teachings. The Jacobites fought to keep King James on the throne, while the Williamites fought to install the Protestant religion all over Ireland and England. In the beginning of the war, the Jacobites continuously proved to be victorious. However, after two of the bloodiest battles, the Battle of Boyne and the Battle of Aughrim, the Jacobites were inevitably overpowered. The Jacobites’ defeat resulted in the signing of the Treaty of Limerick in 1691 which forced members of the Irish army to relocate to the Continental Europe to fight for other countries like Flanders, Germany, Italy, and Catalonia. The Jacobites’ loss also led to the distribution of the Penal Laws. These laws discriminated against Catholics by refusing them the right to an education, hold arms, hold public office, and vote to name a few. In respond to both of these retributions, on October 12, 1691 over 20, 000 Irish people left Limerick and sailed to France to fight for years. The massive migration of these soldiers, clergy, merchants and families became known as a migration of “The Wild Geese.”

Works Cited
Brady, Ciaran. The Encyclopedia of Ireland: An A-Z Guide to its People, Places, History,
and Culture. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
D’Arcy, Frank. Wild Geese and Traveling Scholars. Dublin: Mercier Press, 2001.
Doherty, J.E. A Chronology of Irish History since 1500. Savage, MD: Barnes & Noble
Books, 1990.
Peters, Vincent. “Triskelle: Ireland With a Sense for the Past”.
<http://www.vincentpeters.nl/index.php?index=010> (Oct. 4, 2004).
Thomas, Avril and Colin Thomas. Historical Dictionary of Ireland. Lanham, MD:
Scarecrow Press, 1997.

Emigration Following Famine (Jordyn Saunders)

Killing approximately one million people through disease and starvation the Potato Famine, 1846-1850, hindered the ability to provide for one’s family nearly impossible. Diseases overwhelmed the Irish and hurt their ability to work and travel, resulting in their inability to produce any crops or revenue. Farmers, therefore, were evicted from their land, sometimes without warning because they were unable to pay their landowners. This reoccurring problem concluded in the Ballinglass Incident on March 13, 1846, about 6 months after the potato blight began. On that night the English Army and police destroyed many homes in order to evict the tenant farmers who lived there.

The act of leaving one’s original country was due to the social and political problems, such as disease and lack of money. Emigration was used as a “relief measure for a growing population” and aided the call for a better education (Maltby, 83). The Irish began to emigrate to flee from these problems and the population fell from eight million to five million. In addition to the Potato Famine, ill weather and an outbreak of cholera also pushed the Irish to emigrate. Mostly Catholic peasants stayed in Ireland and clung to their lives, saying that nothing could make them leave their native land. However, in 1847 there were 37,000 Irish immigrants in Boston, which made up about one-third of its population.

The conditions on the ships used for emigration were very poor and few survived. However, even with the few that survived, the United States government did not offer much aid to the Irish emigrants with all the hardships they continued to endure. Finally, the Poor Relief Act of 1847 granted relief to the elderly, sick, and widows with more than two dependent children. However; this act only worked for a limited period of time and many were excluded from the benefits. The peak rate of emigration was 250,000 Irish in 1851. The Irish had to be survivors in a new land and adapt quickly while trying to earn a living. A majority of those who emigrated sent money back to relatives to join them. Some Irish traveled to London, while thousands fled to America, though many did not survive the trip. Thus, the coined phrase “coffin ships,” refers to the crowded and disease ridden ships. They had little to no access to food and water. By 1900, two and a half million more left Ireland to pursue a life across the Atlantic Ocean. The men and boys did hard, manual labor the women and girls worked domestically. More than 60 million Irish emigrants and their descendants emigrated to the United States, Great Britain, Canada, Quebec, and Australia. The history of former and new conditions transformed seven million Irish well into the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries.

Works Cited
Johnston, Mary. Irish Emigration. http://www.gober.net/victorian/reports/irish2.html.
Ireland in the Nineteenth Century. Arthur Maltby and Jean Maltby. Volume 4. .Pergamon Press. 1979. p. 83.
Mark, Ruth. What Was the Irish Potato Famine? 2002. http://scsc.essortment.com/whatwasirishp_rhhn.htm.
A New History of Ireland. Edited by Moody, Martin, Byrne. VIII A Chronology of Irish History
to 1976. Oxford at the Clarendon Press. 1982. pg 324-326.
Shannon, McKenzie. The Irish Famine. http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Congress/2807/irishfamine.html.
The Oxford Companion to Irish History. Edited by SJ Connolly. Oxford University Press. 2002.
pg. 145.

Emigration Following Creation of Irish Free State

Recent Racism & Emigration to Ireland

"Race Relations Act" & "Race Relations Amendment Act" (Whitney Scarborough)

The Race Relations Act of 1976, which built on the AThayerMoellerJcts of 1965 and 1968, was an important step in creating equality for all people in England. While the previously established Acts stated that there must be no discrimination in employment, training, education, and housing, the Race Relations Act of 1976 furthered these ideas by developing the Commission for Race Equality (CRE). This commission, which is still in affect today, has the duty of enforcing the rules set by the act, working towards the elimination of discrimination, and keeping the 1976 act under constant check. The act outlined both direct and indirect discrimination. Direct occurs when one is treated badly because of color, race, nationality, or ethnic origins. Indirect discrimination occurs when only a small number in a racial group can comply with the law, the small group is hurt by the law, and the law has nothing to do with racism. A good example of indirect discrimination “is when an institution's uniforms do not allow for customs of a particular racial group, such as the wearing of shalwar kameez by female Asian nurses.” (Parvez) In theory, the Race Relations Act of 1976 is enough to keep racial discrimination out of a country, although in reality it is not. The Race Relations Amendment Act established in 2000, calls for public authorities to promote racial equality by eliminating all racial discrimination and makes services available for racial groups to obtain education, training, and means to satisfy their welfare needs. The Race Relations Act was passed in England but affected Ireland greatly because of the number of emigrants leaving Ireland, especially between 1970 and 2000. The Travellers, a small group of people from Ireland, make up less than 1% of the Irish population and have their own language, beliefs, and customs. They have had and continue to have a lot of trouble assimilating into the English culture. There are approximately 15,000 Irish Travellers in Britain. (Irish Travellers, University of Liverpool) These people are widely discriminated against and not classified as an ethnic or racial group which means that discrimination against them is not illegal under the Race Relations Act of 1976 and the amendment of this act in 2000. While there are still problems to be solved involving discrimination in England, the Race Relations Act of 1976 and the Race Relations Amendment Act of 2000 have provided a step towards racial equality.

Works Cited

Commission for Racial Equality. 2004. 4 October 2004. < www.cre.gov.uk>
Fanning, Bryan. Racism and social change in the Republic of Ireland. Manchester University Press, 2002.
“ Immigration.” Cassell's Companion to 20th Century Britain. 2001.
Irish Travellers. University of Liverpool. 4 October 2004 http://sca.lib.liv.ac.uk/collections/gypsy/travell.htm#Trav>
Rashid, Stephen Parvez. The Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2000. Open University. Jan. 2003. 4 October 2004. < http://www.swap.ac.uk/widen/RaceAct1.asp>
United Kingdom. The European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. Race Relations Act 1976 (RRA). 4 October 2004 <http://www.eurofound.eu.int/emire/UNITED%20KINGDOM/RACERELATIONSACT1976RRA-EN.html>.

Irish Racism & Sports (Michelle Sutton)

Racism has been spreading immensely across Ireland, regularly in football. Hate groups and supporters of them frequently attend football games to chant racial slurs. Five years ago, about a quarter of the fans of Premiership club stated that at a particular game, racist remarks were aimed at the minority players of the team and also the few minority spectators. One logical reason for the low turnout of minority spectators is the fear of racial attack or abuse. Contradictory to this thought is that the Irish fans would racially attack the black members of the opposing team, yet they would cheer for the black members of their home team. In a late 1998 football game some players were hospitalized as a result of racist actions of the fans of the opposing team. One black player was told in a letter that if he stepped on the field to play, he would be shot, and along with the letter the writer left a bullet. At one point, the prejudiced acts went as far as letting black players be on the team, but not letting them play.

World War I and World War 2 brought about labor shortages in Europe, allowing Africans and Asians to come in to work. Arthur Wharton and his family were among some of the Africans. Wharton, known as the “first black footballer,” became a goalkeeper for Manchester. His accomplishments were unknown because no one wanted to admit to the achievements of a black man. Wharton faced racism from newspaper reporters, making comments about him being a “Darkie used to guard the North End citadel” (Garland and Rowe). Sports and entertainment were common tools used by blacks to make a name for themselves, but Wharton wanted to go beyond this stereotype so he ignored the racist comments and prejudiced actions thrown upon him. Even at young ages it was common to say that the black children were gifted in sports. With Wharton’s skills and accomplishments, many believed he should have been promoted to a higher league, but he was not promoted. People think this is so because he wasn’t an ideal player—being from a higher social rank.

Works Cited
Cooney, Kate. “Racial Prejudice is now the Norm.” Newsletter 23 Apr. 2004
Garland, Jon and Rowe, Michael. Racism and Anti-Racism in Football. Chippenham, Wiltshire: Antony Rowe Ltd, 2001.
McVeigh, Robbie. The Racialization of Irishness. Belfast, Ireland: Centre for Research and Documentation, 1996.

article: Female Emigrees & Refugee Status (Jake Wilson)

There are thousands of refugees inhabiting many different Nations. In 2003, Pia Prutz, a representative for the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), gave on a paper on the kind of discrimination faced by female refugees. The speech was given on International Women’s Day in hopes to readdress the laws concerning the unjust discrimination against female refugees purely on the basis of their gender. A refugee by definition is someone that is seeking a safe place. Prutz’s position is that there is a contradiction in terms with this idea because it seems that the people who are trying to seek a safe place are actually finding themselves in horrible conditions and situations of gender discrimination. The 1951 United Nations Refugee Convention was responsible for the 1951 Refugee Act which sets up the idea of protection for refugees. The UNHCR is also trying to incorporate integrated systems as a precautionary measure to help prevent gender discrimination. A widely fought for standpoint was that of fighting for women will be enabled to participate directly as well as indirectly in the management and distribution of food and non-food items. The UNHCR focuses a great deal of attention toward the Refugee Act and it refisement. The Act sets up the idea that there are five dimensions that can justify refugee protection action. Discrimination or encroachment upon an individual’s right for the reason of nationality, race, religion, political views, or against members of a social group, are the five dimensions that can merit discrimination and unjust treatment of refugees. The goal of the UNHCR is to add more specific language defining gender-based discriminate as a dimension that merits refugee protection in the Refugee Act. Many cases of gender discrimination that have come to the table have been dismissed and denied possible refugee protection because each situation has been converted to a different dimension besides one of the five outlined by the Refugee Act. The UNHCR’s standpoint is that many cases of abuse to women have been labeled as “crimes against humanities” or “war crimes” and therefore are ineligible to fit in any of the five dimensions. To help clear up the confusion created by the particular wording of the Act and in hopes to better define the problem as a whole, the UNHCR offered an alternative reading to the Act. The alternative reading called for women refugees placed in conditions that promote or overlook the harsh treatment of women solely because of their gender, be added somewhere into the definition of one of the dimensions (members of a group) so that they may also be eligible for help and protection.

Reference Section:
Comparable worth and gender discrimination : an international perspective . Gunderson, Morley. Geneva : International Labour Office, 1994.
New approaches to economic and social analyses of discrimination. Richard R. Cornwall and Phanindra V. Wunnava. New York : Praeger, 1991.
Protecting refugee women and girls remains a significant challenge. United States. General Accounting Office.

Paul Marchbanks
marchban@email.unc.edu