The Evolution of Ethiopia
By C.J. Thompson
One of the significant influences of what Ethiopia has become to be is the immigration of Southwest Arabians. Influencing the formation and evolution of culture in northern Ethiopia, they helped shape today’s modern Ethiopia. Arriving during the first millennium B.C., these immigrants brought Semitic speech, writing, and a distinctive stone building tradition to Ethiopia. The Aksumite kingdom, a trading state that amalgamated the shores of the southern Red Sea commercially, and often, politically, was a direct effect of the Arabian immigrants. This prosperous trading state, therefore, was one of the earliest states to be influenced by the spread of Christianity in the mid-fourth century with support from King Ezana. As ruler, he extended Aksum's boundaries, and he decorated his capital with buildings and monuments including obelisks. He introduced the title of "King of Kings,” which is still used by the Ethiopian monarchy into the 1970s (Greenfield, 20). Aksum’s period of great power lasted from the fourth to the sixth century. Its core area lay in the highlands of what are today southern Eritrea, Tigrey, Lasta (in present-day Welo), and Angot.
The origination of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church played a chief role in Ethiopian culture and identity. However, the spread of Islam to the coastal areas of the Horn of Africa in the eighth century led to the isolation of Christiandom and the diminishment of Aksum power. The Coptic Church in Egypt supplied a patriarch to the Aksumites, but such contacts were insufficient to counter an ever-growing ecclesiastical isolation. This brought about a long-term rivalry that embittered older tensions between highlanders and lowlanders and agriculturalists and pastoralists that have persisted to the present day.
Due to the Islamic growth in the Red Sea and loss of commercial network, the Aksumites turned to the northern highlands of Ethiopia. The decline of Aksum was followed in the early twelfth century by a southward shift in the balance of political, cultural and religious power, from Tigray to Agew districts, such as Lasta, Wag, Angot, and, eventually, Amhara. There a chief called Marara, or Mara, founded a new dynasty known as the Zagwe, which developed out of the extensive cultural and political contact between Cushitic- and Semitic-speaking peoples in the northern highlands. Faithful Christians, the Zagwe devoted themselves to the construction of new churches and monasteries (particularly, rock carving), which made the era known as one of the most artistically creative periods in Ethiopian history.
About 1270, an Amhara noble, Yekuno Amlak, drove out the last Zagwe ruler and proclaimed himself king. His new dynasty was called the “Solomonic” dynasty because of claims of King Solomon decent of ancient Israel. During the new dynasty, Ethiopia extended southward, confirming Amharic and Christianity as principal components of the imperial tradition controlling the government until the late twentieth century. (Marcus, 19) Amlak also sought for the "Christian kingdom of Ethiopia" and lead an era of increased contact with the Levant, the Middle East, and Europe. Under Yekuno Amlak, Amhara became the geographical and political center of the Christian kingdom. The consolidation of the new king’s control over the northern highlands and with the weakening and destruction of Muslim states was his main concern. One of his greatest defeats was against Ifat, an Islamic sultanate to the southeast of Amhara that posed a threat to trade routes between Zeila and the central highlands.
Yekuno Amlak's grandson, Amda Siyon (reigned 1313-44), distinguished himself by a last establishing firm control over all of the Christian districts of the kingdom and by expanding into the neighboring regions of Shewa, Gojam, and Damot and into Agew districts in the Lake Tana area. He also devoted much attention to campaign against Muslim states to the east and southeast of Amhara, such as Ifat, which still posed a powerful threat to the kingdom, and against Hadya, a Sidama state southwest of Shewa. (Marcus, 21,22) Through these victories, he gained control of the central highlands and broadened his influence over trade routes to the Red Sea. His conquests also assisted in facilitating the spread of Christianity in the southern highlands. Marked by constant conflict and struggle, the Solomonic dynasty was a line of the sons and grandsons of Yekuno Amlak. Reigning through 1313-44, Amda Siyon, Amlak’s grandson, distinguished himself by establishing control of all the Christian districts of the kingdom and expanding into the neighboring regions of Shewa, Gojam, and Damot and into Agew districts. He also dedicated much time to campaigning against Muslim states, such as Ifat, which still threatened the kingdom. This gave Siyon control of the central highlands and enhanced his influence over trade routes to the Red Sea. His conquest also helped facilitate the spread of Christianity in the southern highlands.
Zara Yakob (reigned 1434-68) was without a doubt one of the greatest Ethiopian rulers. A decisive victory in 1445 over the sultanate of Adal and its Muslim pastoral allies is one of his military triumphs. Zara Yakob also sought to strengthen royal control over a highly decentralized administrative system. Some of his most notable achievements were in ecclesiastical matters, where he sponsored a reorganization of the Orthodox Church, efforts in unifying its religious practices, and promoted proselytization among nonbelievers. Perhaps most remarkable was a flowering of Gi'iz literature, in which the king himself composed a number of important religious tracts. He was unfailing in working for Ethiopia’s unity from Eritrea through Shewa into Sidama, which made his reign highly peaceful and prosperous. (Marcus, 25)
From the mid-fifteenth through the mid-seventeenth century, Christian Ethiopians were confronted by the emergence of the Muslim states, the migrations of the Oromo, and the efforts of the Portuguese—who had been called upon to aid the fight against the forces of Islam—to convert them from Monophysite Christianity to Roman Catholicism. The effects of the Muslim and Oromo activities and of the civil conflict by the Portuguese left the empire destabilized by the mid-seventeenth century. One result was the surfacing of regional lords, who were independent of the throne but in principle subject to it.
In the mid-sixteenth century, its political and military organization already weakened by Muslim efforts, the Christian kingdom began to be pressured on the south by movements of the Oromo. The Oromo migration also affected Muslim power, which in result separated the Christian and Muslim power. This Oromo effect left the Ethiopian state fragile and condensed in size. Thereafter, the Oromo played a major role in the internal dynamics of Ethiopia, as they were slowly incorporated into the Christian kingdom. The Oromo developed a generational-grade form of government, the gada system, which defined male activities in eight-year segments. (Marcus, 35) The periods that resulted from Muslim invasions, the Oromo migrations, and the challenge of Roman Catholicism had come to a close by the middle of the seventeenth century. Over the couple centuries, a rejuvenated Ethiopian state gradually reconsolidated its power and resumed expansion to the south, this time into lands occupied by the Oromo.
Commencing a policy of isolation that lasted for more than two centuries, Emperor Fasiladas (1632-67) ended a period of interaction between Ethiopia and Europe. Fasilides succeeded Susenyos (1632), who had permitted an escalation of Spanish and Roman Catholic influence in Ethiopia. Fasilides reestablished a close alliance between the Ethiopian Coptic Christian Church and the ruling house, expelled Catholic missionaries, and secured the aid of the Muslim rulers to prohibit all Europeans from the country. He also created a new capital at Gonder, in order to protect the throne from the danger of invasions by the Galla peoples of the south, which progressively developed into permanent capital and that became the cultural and political core of Ethiopia during the Gonder period. He anticipated constructing a strong center around which remnants of the Christian north could come together. (Marcus, 41)
Although the Gonder period produced a flowering of architecture and art that endured many decades, Gonder monarchs never reclaimed full control over the wealth and manpower that the nobility had seized during the long wars against Gran and then the Oromo. During Fasiladas reign and his son’s, Yohannes I (1667-82), there were many conflicts over the two monastic orders of the Orthodox Church and Monophysite, Jacobean or Coptic doctrine on the nature of Christ (Greenfield, 26). Neither father nor son could settle the issue without alienating components of the church. Although, Yohannes concentrated on consolidating their authority in areas adjacent to Gonder. (Marcus, 44)
Yasu I, reigned 1682-1706, was a celebrated military leader who excelled at the most basic requirement of the warrior-king. He campaigned constantly in districts on the south of the kingdom and personally led expeditions to Shewa and beyond. He provided for the construction of several churches, such as Debre Birhan Selassie, one of the most beautiful and famous churches in Gonder. During Yasu’s reign, he incorporated the Oromo into the affairs of the kingdom, particularly in military aspect. This resulted in Oromo as important political figures in political affairs and by the nineteenth century, Oromo was the primary language at court, and Oromo leaders came to be the highest nobility of the kingdom.
During the reign of Iyoas (1755-69), the most important political figure was Ras Mikael Sehul, who monopolized the trade that passed through his province, raised large armies and dominated the Gonder scene. (Marcus, 46) He demonstrated his power by ordering the murder of two kings (Iyoas and Yohannis II) and placed Tekla Haimanot (son of Yohannis II) on the throne. This led to the beginning of what Ethiopians have long termed the Zemene Mesafint (Era of Princes), a time when Gonder kings were reduced to ceremonial figureheads while their powers lay within the nobles. The kingdom was no longer a unified entity capable of systematic political and military activity.
Meanwhile, some of the Oromo population—cultivators and suppliers of goods exportable to the Red Sea coast and beyond—had developed kingdoms of their own, no doubt inspired in part by the examples of the Amhara to the north and the Sidama kingdoms to the south. The seventeenth through nineteenth century was a period not only of migration but also of integration, as groups borrowed usable techniques and institutions from each other. In the south, too, Islam had made significant inroads. Many Oromo leaders found Islam a useful instrument in the process of centralization as well as in the building of trade networks.
External factors once more affected the highlands and adjacent areas by the mid nineteenth century, at least in part because trade among the Red Sea states was being revived. Egypt made incursions along the coast and sought at various times to control the Red Sea ports. Europeans, mostly British and French, showed interest in the Horn of Africa. Conflicts of the period are due to the competition for trade, differences over how to respond to Egypt's activities, and the availability of modern arms.
In the mid-nineteenth century, a major figure in Gonder was Kasa Haylu, who suffered a crushing defeat in 1848 from the Egyptians in Sudan. He later defeated Ras Ali’s army and attained the title of negas in 1854, and later crowned Tewodros II by the head of the church in 1855. Tewodros II sought to reestablish a cohesive Ethiopian state and to reform its administration and church. Tewodros later committed suicide when problems persisted in his attempt to seek aid from the British government was unsuccessful. Tewodros never achieved the dream of restoring a strong monarchy, although he took some vital initial steps. He sought to establish the principle that governors and judges must be salaried appointees. He also established a professional standing army, rather than depending on local lords to provide soldiers for his expeditions. He also intended to reform the church, believing the clergy to be ignorant and immoral. Although, he faced strong opposition when he attempted to inflict taxes on church lands to help finance government activities. He confiscated the church lands and gained enemies in the church and little support elsewhere. Basically, Tewodros was a talented military campaigner but a poor politician.
Menelik II later declared himself negas of Shewa after escaping captivity under Tewodros II. In 1872 Kasa Mercha was crowned “negusa nagast” (king of kings) in a ceremony at the ancient capital of Aksum, taking the throne name of Yohannis IV. He was confronted with the growing power of Menelik, and after while gave him the territories to the south of Shewa. Yohannis was often preoccupied with foreign enemies and pressures. During Yohannis’ reign, the Italian government took over the port of Aseb in 1882 from the Rubattino Shipping Company. Italy's main interest was not the port but in the colonization of Ethiopia. The main Italian drive was begun in 1885 from Mitsiwa, which Italy had occupied. From this port, the Italians began to penetrate the hinterland, with British help. In 1887, after the Italians were soundly defeated at Dogali by Ras Alula, the governor of northeastern Tigray, they sent a stronger force into the area. Yohhanis was killed at the Battle of Metema on the Sudanese border by the Mahdists (Sudanese Muslims). Menelik then took over the throne.
By 1900 Menelik had succeeded in establishing control over much of present-day Ethiopia and had gained recognition from the European colonial powers. Although in many respects a traditionalist, he introduced several significant changes. With the advice from his wife, He decided in the late 1880s to position the royal encampment at Addis Ababa ("New Flower") in southern Shewa led to the gradual rise of an urban center and a permanent capital in the 1890s, a development that facilitated the introduction of new ideas and technology. The capital's location symbolized the empire's southern reorientation. Menelik’s innovation to build a railroad would eventually link Addis Ababa and Djibouti, which was not only a link for Ethiopia to the outside world but a spur of capitalism and exploitation of the country’s bulk as cash crops. (Marcus, 107)
Expanding south, Menelik introduced a system of land rights. These changes had significant implications for the ordinary cultivator in the south and were to engender different responses to the land reform programs that would follow the revolution of 1974. In the south, all land theoretically belonged to the emperor. He then allocated land rights to those he appointed to office and to his soldiers.
At the same time that Menelik was extending his empire, European colonial powers were showing an interest in the territories surrounding Ethiopia. Menelik considered the Italians an alarming challenge and negotiated the Treaty of Wuchale with them in 1889. Among its terms were those permitting the Italians to establish their authority on the edge of the northern highlands and from which they subsequently sought to expand into Tigray. Ethiopia gained considered stability from the treaty by promoting Ethiopia’s national integrity, which marked the end of active British and French imperialism in the region and for a while, controlled the Italian expansion. (Marcus, 108) Thereafter, relations with Italy were further strained as a result of the establishment of Eritrea as a colony and the penetration of Italy into the Somali territories.
In late 1895, Italian forces invaded Tigray. However, Menelik completely routed them in early 1896 as they approached the Tigrayan capital, Adwa. This victory brought Ethiopia new prestige as well as general recognition of its sovereign status by the European powers. Moreover, while pursuing his own territorial designs, Menelik joined with France in 1898 to penetrate Sudan at Fashoda and then cooperated with British forces in British Somaliland between 1900 and 1904 to put down a rebellion in the Ogaden by Somali leader Muhammad Abdullah Hassan. By 1908 the colonial powers had recognized Ethiopia's borders except for those with Italian Somaliland. To avoid an outbreak of conflict in the area, Britain, France, and Italy signed the Tripartite Treaty, which declared that the common purpose of the three powers was to maintain the political status quo and to respect each other's interests. Britain's interest, it was recognized, lay around Lake Tana and the headwaters of the Abay (Blue Nile). Italy's chief interest was in linking Eritrea with Italian Somaliland. France's interest was the territory to be traversed by the railroad from Addis Ababa to Djibouti in French Somaliland Menelik established a Council of Ministers in late 1907 to assist in the management of state affairs. In June 1908, the emperor designated his thirteen-year-old nephew, Lij Iyasu, son of Ras Mikael of Welo, as his successor. At the outbreak of World War I, encouraged by his father and by German and Turkish diplomats, Lij Iyasu adopted the Islamic faith. He was immediately excommunicated as emperor and Menelik’s daughter, Zawditu, was declared empress. Tafari Mekonnen was given the title of ras and later crowned negus in 1928.
Before his crowning as negus, Tafari began to introduce a degree of modernization into Ethiopia. In 1918, he set out to establish a viable foreign policy and sought to guarantee the country’s security. (Marcus 119) As early as 1920, he structured administrative regulations and legal “code books” from various European countries to offer models for his newly created bureaucracy. Ministers were also selected to advise the regent and were given official accommodations in the capital. Tafari promoted government schooling to ensure the growth of educated young men who could introduce reforms in the years ahead. He expanded the school Menelik had established for the sons of nobles and founded Tafari Mekonnen Elementary School in 1925. In addition, he took steps to improve health and social services.
Tafari also set out to extend his power base and secure allies abroad. In 1919, he attempted to gain membership in the League of Nations but was denied because of the existence of slavery in Ethiopia. He (and Empress Zawditu) complied with the norms of the international community by banning the slave trade in 1923. Later that year, Ethiopia was unanimously voted membership in the League of Nations, which provided Ethiopia with unquestioned sovereignty under international law. (Marcus, 121) Continuing to search for international approval of the country's internal conditions, the government ratified laws in 1924 that provided for the gradual emancipation of slaves. The exact degree of servitude was difficult to determine, however, as the majority of slaves worked in households and were considered to be second-class family members.
Ethiopia signed a twenty-year treaty of friendship with Italy in 1928, providing for an Ethiopian free-trade zone at Aseb in Eritrea and the construction of a road from the port to Dese in Welo. Contact with the outside world expanded further when the emperor engaged a Belgian military mission in 1929 to train the royal bodyguards. In 1930 negotiations started between Ethiopia and various international banking institutions for the establishment of the Bank of Ethiopia. In the same year, Tafari signed the Arms Traffic Act with Britain, France, and Italy, by which unauthorized persons were denied the right to import arms. The act also recognized the government's right to procure arms against external aggression and to maintain internal order.
In 1930, Negus Tafari was crowned Haile Selassie I, “Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah, Elect of God, and Kings and Kings of Ethiopia.” As emperor, he pressed for reforms that aimed at modernizing the country and contravening the authority of the nobility. In July 1931, Haile Selassie granted a constitution that asserted his own status and declared that “the person of the Emperor is sacred, his dignity inviolable , and his power indisputable.” All power over central and local government, the legislature, the judiciary, and the military remained with the emperor. The constitution was essentially an effort to provide a legal basis for replacing the traditional provincial rulers with appointees loyal to the emperor. Haile Selassie chose his own administration and sought to limit the power of the noble with regional power bases but he didn’t directly handle the systems of land tenure that were linked to the traditional political order. The system of land allocation in the south amounted to a social and economic revolution that Haile Selassie was not prepared to undertake.
The emperor took nonmilitary measures to promote loyalty to the throne and to the state. He established new elementary and secondary schools in Addis Ababa. The government enacted a penal code in 1930, imported printing presses to provide nationally oriented newspapers, increased the availability of electricity and telephone services, and promoted public health. The Bank of Ethiopia, founded in 1931, commenced issuing Ethiopian currency.
On September 29, 1934, Rome reaffirmed its 1928 treaty of friendship with Ethiopia. Nonetheless, Italy wanted to expand its holdings in the Horn of Africa. On October 3, 1935, Italy attacked Ethiopia from Eritrea and Italian Somaliland without a declaration of war. On October 7, the League of Nations unanimously declared Italy an aggressor but took no effective action.
In a country so well endowed with natural fortresses, lofty mountain ranges, and deep river gorges unity is hard to attain. Sustaining their embrace on the several provinces has always been a struggle. Rebellion and civil war have forever been frequent. Feral tribes have been able to maintain their independence for long periods while at times the kingdom has separated into a number of virtually independent principalities. It is a wonder that Ethiopia has been able “to achieve the substantial unity, which it has enjoyed almost throughout its history, and a great tribute to the strong national sentiment and dynastic loyalty of the Ethiopian people” (Jones, 5).Work Cited
1. Marcus, Harold G. A History of Ethiopia. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.
2. History of Ethiopia.” Ethiopia: An Ancient Legacy. 2000. Online. Internet Explorer. http://www.emulateme.com/.
3. Greenfield, Richard. Ethiopia: A New Political History. New York. Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., Publishers, 1965.
4. Jones, A.H.M. A History of Ethiopia. Oxford. Oxford University Clarendon Press, 1955.