The questions you will answer in your papers demand in-depth analysis
and sophisticated interpretation. In most cases, an essay that
effectively answers the question will be 4 to 5 pages. Your instructors
are notnecessarily detectives, but they are liable to notice if you try
to stretch a short paper using font or margin games... due to lack of content
if nothing else! So if you think you are all done but you only have
3 pages of text with a 10 line header on the first page, you may want to
go back and reconsider. It's not impossible to craft a 2 and a half page
essay that answers the questiion fully and brilliantly, but most of the
two and a half page essays we've graded
haven't ended up in the "A" pile. By the same token, however,
you don't want to become so wrapped up in minute details that you have
to write 6 or more pages to answer the question. Since we've arbitrarily
limited the length of the essay, we're not expecting an encyclopedic response--and
given the number of papers which we'll have to grade, we won't accept one
either! SO CRAFT AN ARGUMENT AND USE FACTS TO SUPPORT YOUR THESIS
OR INTERPRETATION. AVOID A RUNNING NARRATIVE THAT DOESN'T ANSWER
THE QUESTION DIRECTLY
Run-ons: Compact sentences are generally more effective than long, meandering ones... particularly when the long sentence is a run-on. Beware of 2 or more "and's," or large numbers of commas. Just put a period in and make two sentences. If that doesn't work, you probably need to rework your prose anyway in order to better explain the relationships involved.
Don't use contractions or slang.
Don't overuse rhetorical questions.
Generally, seek to avoid directly addressing the reader--ie. "This paper will show that...." Make declarative statements referring to the evidence that supports them.
You MUST use evidence from the course materials (including
class notes)
to support the arguments you make in your essays. You must also
acknowledge when you are relying on other people's IDEAS OR THINKING by
CITING the source you used.
There are 2 main types of sources: primary and secondary. Primary sources are people who actually witnessed or participated in the historical events in question--for our purposes, this is essentially limited to direct quotations appearing in the texts we have assigned. Secondary sources are non-witnesses, including historians writing about events years later. Primary sources are generally considered more valuable evidence, but secondary sources are both more easily available and valuable in their own right.
Each type of source can be used in two ways: direct quotation and paraphrase.
Sometimes you will want to quote a specific passage from a source. This can be very effective in strengthening your argument.. but you have to do it right!!!
First, you MUST INTRODUCE THE AUTHOR: If you're quoting Dwight Eisenhower from the Ambrose book, regarding his impressions of preparations for the invasion of France, you should write something like this: As Eisenhower observed, his staff exhibited "a very deep conviction, in all circles, that we are approaching a tremendous crisis with stakes incalculable." (Ambrose, 123)
You want everyone to know who the quote is from, and you must not assume that THE READER will know--even if the words you're quoting are "This is a date that shall live in infamy."
Don't overuse quotes, however! You should generally limit direct quotes to passages from primary witnesses or participants. Occasionally, you may want to use a directly quoted passage from a secondary source, if the source's interpretation is so well-worded or concise that you cannot imagine another way in which to say it.
Most of the time, however, you can take the portion of a text which supports your argument and PARAPHRASE it. Paraphrasing involves taking a point made in another's work and modifying the language to incorporate it into your work. So to go back to our earlier Eisenhower quote, you might write something like this: Eisenhower's staff was well-aware of the dangers inherent in the invasion of France. (Ambrose 123).
Here I've used the same material that I quoted above, but this time I've paraphrased it. Paraphrasing a secondary source is similar.
THE CRUCIAL ROLE OF CITATION
Note that even though I didn't directly quote in the example above,
I still cited the source from which the information came. THIS IS
VERY IMPORTANT!!! Citing your sources helps you to avoid plagiarism
AND STRENGTHENS YOUR ARGUMENTS! It's one thing to write that
Eisenhower's staff was aware of the dangers, but if you include the citation,
we know that you have hard, verifiable evidence to back up what you say.
That's very much in your favor! You should cite your source anytime
you use information that is not "common knowledge." Thus, you don't
have to cite a source when you state that the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor
on December 7, 1941 . . . but you WOULD want to cite a source if you reproduced
its figures for the number of American servicemen killed or if you paraphrased
its argument that American military leaders' inattention to important warning
signals was responsible for the disaster.
Citation format: In the examples above, I've used a simple citation format: The author of the book/collection in which the evidence appears and the page number. This format will be adequate for the purposes of this class AS LONG AS YOU ARE USING ONLY THE ASSIGNED COURSE MATERIALS. TheRe is nothing wrong with using outside sources, but you must either use a "works cited" page at the end of your paper that notes all the Books/collections/documents/web pages/etc. which you have used in the paper OR employ detailed footnotes throughout instead of the simplified paranthetical notation. If you want to use footnotes and know the proper format, go ahead and use them. If not, stick with the paranthetical format.
Some last notes on outside sources: Carefully evaluate non-course materials that you intend to use in your paper. Are they legitimate? ARE THEY SOUND? ARE THEY CREDIBLE? Does the author have an ax to grind or an otherwise skewed viewpoint? Note that even primary documents can be faked, especially on web pages. You do not want to use a web-based collection of primary documents on the Holocaust and then find out the site you found them on belonged to a neo-Nazi group, for instance. If you're not sure about the quality of a source, check with Dr. Kohn or ME before using it.
I recommend the format you learned in high school English--introduction,
body, conclusion. . . .
In the Introduction, you should introduce the issues raised by
the
question and outline your basic ARGUMENT. Too many people fail
to make a strong, specific argument in their introductions. The result
is often a weakly organized, ineffective essay. Your argument (or
thesis, if you prefer) should explainin a sentence or so how you will answer
the question. Since we've provided specific questions for you to
address, you should be able to formulate a concise argument like this.
If you can't, you probably fall into one of two categories: either
you've constructed an extremely sophisticated interpretation or your answer
is not very specific or organized. A strong argument tells the reader
immediately how you see the issues at stake; it also allows you to use
evidence more forcefully. Strong does not necessarily mean one-sided
HOWEVER--most of the time, you must engage alternative points of view in
order to answer the question PROPERLY.
The Body of the paper--Using evidence: The body of your paper should follow the basic format of your argument. If there are subpoints to your argument, explOre them in the body in the same order in which you present them in the introduction; the key is to develop your answer logically, explaining each point until your whole interpretation is clear. If you have a strong argument, you will be able to make your points in the body of the paper much more effectively--the reader will already know your take on things and you'll be able to lead them through the evidence which led you to those ideas. If you don't have a strong, clear argument, you're relying on the reader to do all the work, and he or she may not get it. If we don't "get it" when we're grading, it could mean problems for you. . . .
The Conclusion: In the conclusion of your essay, you should reinforce your basic argument. Make sure the reader will see how the evidence you've put together should lead them to the same conclusions you've reached. You don't have to write a page-long conclusion, but you should always write a SUBSTANTIAL paragraph that sums it all up--once again, you don't want to count on the reader being astute enough to get the point--make sure it's obvious.
Dr. Kohn and I will be happy to meet with you during our office
hours or by appointment in order to discuss questions regarding your papers,
both those you are currently working on and those which we have returned
to you. We cannot read full drafts and we won't give you THE RIGHT
answer (there really isnt just one IN THESE KINDS OF PROBLEMS), but we
can give advice which may prove valuable. I generally find I can
be most helpful when a student comes to me with an argument already formulated
and an outline of how he or she intends to developit.
An excellent source of assistance for writers is the UNC Writing
Center. THE STAFF THERE CONSISTS OF trained people who can help you
at any stage of the writing process, from helping you formulate basic arguments
to critiquing a finished paper. Call them at 962-7710 to make an
appointment. Appointments are available from 9:00 AM TO 7:30 PM.
From 9 to 3, appointments are at Phillips Annex next to Memorial Hall;
from 4:30 to 7:30, they have additional appointments which meet in the
basement of the Undergraduate Library. Do not hesitate to turn to
them if you have problems.