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These are four papers that I have written during my sophomore year for Journalism and English classes:
"Goblin Market": Fairy Tale or Literary Masterpiece
"Goblin Market" by Christina
Rossetti is a very interesting poem that has received a plethora of various
interpretations. Although it seems to be a simple nursery rhyme, critics have
interpreted it as many other things, from a story of sacrifice and redemption
to a criticism of the English canon. Although many of these interpretations
can seem far-fetched after simply reading the poem, knowledge of Rossetti's
life and background makes them more plausible.
"Goblin Market" first appears to be a simple,
charming tale for children. This interpretation is the most obvious and the
easiest to support. The actual story of the poem is very much like a fairy tale,
as are other aspects such as the rhyme and the simple lessons.
First, the setting is very magical. It takes
place in a magical village or forest where goblins live among people. The two
main characters, the sisters Laura and Lizzie, seem to live freely with nature.
Even though Rossetti mentions their house briefly in line 293, "She no more
swept the house," the sisters seem to live within nature as peacefully as the
animals. The following lines illustrate their closeness to nature:
Like
two pigeons in one nest
Folded
in each other's wings,
They lay down in their curtained bed:
Like two blossoms on one stem,
Like two flakes of new-fall'n snow,
Like two wands of ivory
Tipped with gold for awful kings.
Moon and stars gazed in at them,
Wind sang to them lullaby,
Lumbering owls forbode to fly,
Not a bat flapped to and fro
Round their rest:
Cheek to cheek and breast to breast
Locked together in one nest. (lines 184 - 198)
Although these lines say that the two girls shared a bed, the many references
to aspects of nature imply that they may be outside. For example, the fact that
"Moon and stars gazed in at them" suggests they are asleep outside (192). Also,
several other aspects of these lines connect them to nature, such as the comparisons
of the two girls to pigeons, blossoms, and snowflakes, and the metaphor of their
bed to a nest. The wind sings them to sleep, and the animals do not disturb
their rest. All of these images suggest that the girls live in a harmonious,
magical, natural environment. The comparison of the girls to wands "Tipped with
gold for awful kings" emphasizes the fairy tale qualities even more because
both kings and gold are common elements of fairy tales(191).
In addition to the magical setting, the
mechanics of the poem are very fitting for a child's tale. The poem is easy
and enjoyable to read aloud, similar to most nursery rhymes. Most of the lines
flow in a singsong rhythm, and they rhyme as well. For example, the following
lines illustrate this bouncy rhythm and rhyme: "When they reached where Laura
was/ They stood stock still upon the moss,/ Leering at each other,/ Brother
with queer brother;/ Signalling each other"(91 - 95). Although the lines do
not follow a standard or uniform meter, the meter flows well when the lines
are read aloud. The first two lines of this passage are of about the same length
and the last words almost rhyme. The last three lines have exactly the same
meter and rhyme. The rhythm and rhyme of the poem is much like a child's nursery
rhyme. This helps set the light and fun mood of the poem.
Other mechanics of "Goblin Market" liken
it to a children's poem. One mechanic in particular is Rossetti's frequent use
of repetition. For example, the line "Come buy, come buy" is often repeated
throughout the poem. Also, there is repetition of certain words in lines that
follow one another. For example, lines 82 through 85 all begin with the word
"Like," and lines 71 through 76 all begin with the word "One." Just as many
children's poems do, "Goblin Market" seems to use repetition to appeal to children
and help them memorize the poem. Another mechanic that does this is the diction.
Rossetti uses vivid, descriptive words and phrases like "Boom-down-cheeked peaches"(9)
and "Bright-fire-like barberries"(28). These types of words and phrases would
certainly appeal to children.
Finally, the actual story of "Goblin Market"
is like a children's tale. The story is about a girl, Laura, who buys forbidden
fruit from little goblin men after her sister Lizzie warns her against them.
Then, Laura obsesses over getting more fruit, but she can no longer see or hear
the magical goblins, so she begins to grow old and sick. So, to save her sister,
Lizzie bravely faces the goblins who torture her and throw their fruit at her.
Laura then sucks the fruit juices off her sister, which cure her. The moral
of the story is not to give into temptation and that "there is no friend like
a sister"(562). This story is much like many popular fairy tales. It is simple,
it has a happy ending, it teaches a lesson, and it involves fantasy and magic.
Because all of the many components of this
poem that liken it to a children's tale, it is easy to see why many people read
it just as that and dismiss the possibility of it being a literary masterpiece.
Thomas Burnett Swann says in his book Wonder and Whimsy: The Fantastic World
of Christina Rossetti that "Goblin Market" even seems to have been written by
a child. He writes, "It is childlike in its clichés: 'One may lead a horse to
water,/ Twenty cannot make him drink.' It is scarcely more artful in its metre"
(Swann 92). However, Swann continues to say that " 'Goblin Market' is nonetheless
a masterpiece, because, like a child's day-dream, it is both terrifying and
unspeakably beautiful"(93). Various interpretations and critiques abound that
explain why this seemingly magical tale is a significant piece of literature.
One complex interpretation is that "Goblin
Market" is a criticism of a problem within the English canon of literature:
that there were no true female heroes. W. Glasgow Phillips discusses this interpretation
in his article "Theme in Christina Rossetti's 'Goblin Market.'" He points out
that at this time there were female protagonists, but they had "no outlet for
heroic action." He writes, "They are constrained by the gender-roles into which
a male-dominated society has placed them." He uses Elizabeth of Jane Austen's
Pride and Prejudice, as an example. While she is the protagonist, she is hindered
by the society in which she lives. She has to wait around for her true love,
Darcy, and she is "hobbled by the cords of decorum."
Rossetti addresses this problem in "Goblin
Market" with her depiction of Lizzie as the hero. Lizzie is a hero by sacrificing
herself for Laura and saving her. However, the goblin men still dominate her.
The following passage shows their degrading control over her:
They trod and hustled her,
Elbowed and jostled her,
Clawed with their nails,
Barking, mewing, hissing, mocking,
Tore her gown and soiled her stocking,
Twitched her hair out by the roots,
Stamped upon her tender feet,
Held her hands and squeezed their fruits
Against her mouth to make her eat. (lines 339 - 408)
Therefore, while Lizzie is a hero because she survives the goblins' torture,
she is still a victim to them. The fact that Lizzie and Laura are both females
and the goblins are "wicked, quaint fruit-merchant men"(533) shows that Rossetti
could have been trying to make this point about the English canon. Also, the
ending of the story is quite confusing. We do not know exactly why the fruit
juices work as an antidote for Laura's illness, or how they work. This uncertainty
could reflect Rossetti's uncertainty about the female hero.
Several other interpretations have been
made that call "Goblin Market" a feminist text. For example, Elizabeth K. Helsinger
writes that "Goblin Market" is a criticism of the economic market for Victorian
women. Women had very few career options, and they often felt forced to engage
in prostitution. Helsinger draws a connection with Lizzie feeling obligated
to sacrifice herself to the goblins. Other feminist interpretations exist as
well. For example, some critics say that the "Goblin Market" is a critique of
the Victorian marriage market. Just as the maidens are forbidden of the goblins'
fruit, Victorian women were forbidden of independence. Also, some say that Rossetti
was trying to develop a way for women to undermine the constraints of a patriarchal
society. In this interpretation, critics say that Lizzie is only seen as a body
to the goblins, so, to defeat them, she changes what she is seen as. In the
end, her body has the power to cure her sister.
All of these interpretations claim that
Rossetti wrote "Goblin Market" for the interests of women and to illustrate
problems that women experienced in Victorian society. Based on what was going
on with women's rights at this time and what Rossetti herself was doing, this
claim is very likely to be true. In the 1800's, women were slowly beginning
to obtain more rights. For example, the Married Women's Property Act was passed
that allowed married women to legally have personal property. However, Victorian
England was controlled by a very rigid social code, especially for women. Rossetti
both witnessed and experienced this social code. She also worked at St. Mary
Magdalene's Penitentiary, a home for "fallen women," in the late 1850's and
1860's (Helsinger 194). Here, she saw how disadvantaged women really were, and
she helped them as much as she could until she became too ill to work in 1870.
Her apparent concern for women displayed here makes it likely that she really
did write "Goblin Market" from a feminist perspective. Also, Helsinger writes
that it was here that she probably discovered the many problems within the economic
market for women. She writes that the workers of the home tried "to redeem through
spiritual reformation women who had strayed into moral abyss. . . But they were
also a means of keeping women off the market until they had something to sell
other than their bodies" (194). It seems very likely that Rossetti's experience
as a woman and her work at the penitentiary led her to write "Goblin Market"
for women.
Other popular interpretations involve the
religious aspects of "Goblin Market." The story can be read as a religious story
about temptation, sin, sacrifice, and redemption. Laura sinned by giving into
temptation, but she is redeemed by the self-sacrifice of Lizzie. This is similar
to the story of Christ, whose sacrifice redeemed all humankind. Some lines within
the poem seem blatantly religious, also. For example, "Life out of death"(524)
alludes to the Biblical story. Out of the death of Christ came the eternal life
of all humanity; also, Christ rose from the dead. Another possibly religious
line is "Eat me, drink me, love me," which is like Holy Communion (471).
These religious interpretations are also
likely because Rossetti was such a religiously devout person. She led a very
strict life, denying herself pleasures such as the theater and chess. Also,
she broke off two marriage engagements due to religious reasons. Her life definitely
centered around her religion, and so it is not surprising that her literature
should reflect this.
The various interpretations of "Goblin
Market" imply that Rossetti used this poem to write about what was important
to her, and they all seem likely because of the parallels with the poem and
her life. However, Rossetti never admitted to writing "Goblin Market" for any
of these reasons. She simply said it was a children's tale. While "Goblin Market"
certainly does have many aspects that would make it a wonderful nursery rhyme-like
tale for children, its symbolism and interpretations are what make it a truly
noteworthy piece of literature. Therefore, while simply reading over "Goblin
Market" could be enjoyable for a reader of any age, an understanding of Rossetti's
background and some of the common interpretations of the poem is necessary to
truly appreciate it.
Works Cited
Helsinger, Elizabeth K. "Consumer Power and the Utopia of Desire:
Christina Rossetti's 'Goblin Market.'" New
Casebooks: Victorian Women Poets. Joseph Bristow,
ed. St. Martin's Press: New York, 1995.
Phillips, W. Glasgow. "Theme in Christina Rossetti's 'Goblin Market.'" The Victorian
Web: Literature, History, and
Culture in the Age of Victoria.
http://landow.stg.brown.edu/victorian/crossetti/gm2.html
Rossetti, Chrisina. "Goblin Market." The Norton Anthology of English Literature,
7th ed. Vol. 2. M.H. Abrams,
ed. Norton: New York, 2000.
Swann, Thomas Burnett. Wonder and Whimsy: The Fantastic World of Christina Rossetti.
Marshal Jones: New
Hampshire, 1960.
Society Coverage in The Mount Airy News: 1950 and 1981
In 1950, The Mount Airy News was published once a week, and it included only local news. By 1981, the newspaper was published five days a week, and it included state, national, and international news as well as local news. The newspaper definitely underwent many changes in the years between 1950 and 1981. However, although many differences exist, the focus on news about local society is apparent in both the February 3 and 10 1950 issues and the August 24-28 1981 issues.
February 3 and February 10, 1950
The February 3 and February 10 issues of the Mount Airy News focus on local news. One particular focus is the description of social events such as parties and weddings. The paper includes extremely detailed accounts of these events.
For example, on page 2 of the February 3 paper, a story with the headline, "Dr.and
Mrs. Ashby Entertain at Home For Son and Bride," described a local wedding.
According to the article, "The affair was the largest social event to take place
in Mount Airy and was attended by approximately 500 guests." Like the many other
articles describing social events, the article included very specific details,
from the color scheme used to the outfits worn. Even the garnishes on the buffet
were mentioned: "Pickles and relishes in an unusual arrangement made a water
lily design on the buffet, outlined with curled celery."
In addition to large weddings, the paper also described smaller social events
with the same details. For example, an article on the front page of the February
3 issue was titled, "Mesdames Graves and Wrenn Entertain with Breakfast Bridge."
This account of a small bridge party included the names of the women invited,
the refreshments served, and the decorations. On page 2 of section 2 of the
February 10 issue, an article mentioned a high school get-together on a Saturday
night: "The usual gang . . . gathered at Anne Merritt's house. They all enjoyed
square dancing, the Virginia Reel - that is until the record player broke, and
someone had to do the calling." Other events described in the paper included
meetings of various groups ranging from church committees to boy scout troops.
For example, a small article on the second page of the February 3rd issue included
the headline, "Mount Airy Chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederacy
Meeting at Home of Mrs. J.S. Bray." Social events certainly constituted a large
portion of the news in the Mount Airy News in 1950.
In addition to accounts of social events, the paper also included a great deal
of news about local people, or, in other words, "gossip." There are many accounts
of people taking trips to places outside of Mount Airy. For example, the front
page of the February 3rd issue featured a story titled, "Mr. And Mrs. Harrison
Return from Hawaii." The story was a four-paragraph account of a local couple's
vacation to see their son and daughter-in-law, who "took them to every nick
and nack of the island." On the same page, a small segment with no headline
read, "Mr. And Mrs. Guy Byerly, Jr., of Charlotte, visited their parents, Mr.
And Mrs. G.L. Byerly and Mr. And Mrs. W.S. Wolfe over the weekend." These examples
on the front page of the paper show that people's leaving town was considered
very newsworthy.
While the front page included some articles on local people's whereabouts and
actions, the paper also devoted entire sections to similar news. Two of such
sections that appeared in both the February 3rd and the 10th are titled "Local
Items About People You Know" and "The Passing Parade." The first of the two
basically only reported on people from Mount Airy taking trips and receiving
out-of-town visitors. For example, one account read, "O.K. Merritt has returned
here after attending a peace seminar in Atlanta, Georgia." The second section,
"The Passing Parade, as viewed by Eleanor Powell" was a column that included
all sorts of gossip about people of all ages. Powell reported on parties, dates,
break-ups, and many other social events in this column. For example, on February
3rd, the following account was published: We also noticed Kelvin Seivers sitting
with Joanne Wier during the ball game - of course he was just keeping her company
while Bill played ball. Following the game she was in the car with Kip Hale,
Bepo, John Banner, And Ben Tilley and they all went to the Derby - but Joanne
slipped outside of the car and hit her head on the pavement - They carried her
to the hospital but reports are that she's doing fine now. ( The Mount Airy
News Febrary 3, 1950 page 4) Unofficial, meaningless, yet entertaining gossip
such as this was very typical of "The Passing Parade." The section certainly
kept readers informed on who was currently dating, and who had broken-up. For
example, on February 3rd, Powell wrote, "Don Smith and Barbara Eldridge have
decided to end their love affair - just because she got tired of dating him."
It also probably embarrassed many people as well, because of the shocking stories
it included. For example, the following account about local teen-agers was published
in the February 10th issue, "We can imagine how Juanita Snow and Owen Horton
felt Saturday night when they were up at the Horton's farm, and Mr. And Mrs.
Horton drove up right beside them. Embarassing - well, they really were. Betty
Newson and Q-Ball Fears were dating with them."
All of the news about local society in the 1950 Mount Airy News revealed the
town's intimacy. For example, the articles seem to be written from a very local
perspective, with Mount Airy as the center of the news. It was considered newsworthy
when other people visited the town, for example. On February 10th, the front
page included a segment that read, "Mrs. T.H. Horrell of Hillsville, Va was
shopping in the city [Mount Airy] Wednesday." Another example referred to a
weekend visitor from Cuba in the February 3rd issue. The visitor was mentioned
four times in one issue of the paper. First, the front page included a small
segment with the headline, "Miss Libby Shelton is Hostess at Cola Party to Honor
Roomate," that informd the party was given "in honor of her house guest, Miss
Selma Haydock-Wilson of Atlanta Ga. And Cuba." Then, on the second page, an
article described the cola party and who attended it in great detail, "Two tables
of canasta were arranged for play, after which the hostess served delicious
refreshments." "The Passing Parade" also included the guest by saying, "Libby
Shelton had her roommate home last weekend and all the boys were talking about
that 'cute Cuban'." Finally, in the section "Local Items About People You Know,"
the following account was published:
Miss Selma Haydock-Wilson, daughter of L. Haydock-Wilson, Esq. M.B.E. former British Vice Consul to Santiago de Cuba, was the weekend guest of Miss Libby Shlelton on Franklin St. Miss Haydock-Wilson is Miss Shelton's roommate at Women's College in Greensboro. (The Mount Airy News February 3, 1950, page 5) Obviously, everyone wanted to know about important visitors to Mount Airy.
Other small articles were also clearly written from a local perspective. For example, a wedding announcement published on February 3rd was titled, "Marriage of Lindsay Wayne Christian To Hamlet Girl Announced." Although the announcement, like most traditional wedding announcements, is made by the parents of the bride, her name is not even given in the title. This is because she was from out of town, and the real interest was in the boy from Mount Airy. Another similar article in the same issue says, "a man with a sister here was stricken with paralysis at his home in Jacksonville, NC." Because the man's sister lived in Mount Airy this story was worthy of the paper.
These examples all show that in 1950, the Mount Airy News included many articles about happenings in society. These articles were written from a local perspective with a local audience in mind.
August 24 - August 28, 1981
In 1981, the Mount Airy News still featured articles pertaining to events in local society. The articles about weddings, wedding showers, and other parties included just as many details as the 1950 issues did. For example, the August 24th issue featured several articles about one particular marriage. One article described in great detail the actual wedding ceremony. Titled "Miss Blackman Marries Mr. Rogers," the article said, "Vows were exchanged before a nuptial setting created by brass candelabra containing lighted tapers and surrounded by arrangements of fresh lavendar, blue and yellow flowers." The article also described the dresses and suits of everyone in the wedding. The following excerpt is a typical example:
Miss Tanya B. Jackson of Mount Airy, sister of the bride, was matron of honor. She wore a gown of blue chiffon. The bodice was designed with tiny chiffon tucks and white baby's lace held to the shoulder with spaghetti straps. The skirt fell from the waist to the floor into a full circular sweeping skirt. She carried a bouquet of lavendar, blue, and yellow roses, poms and babies-breath. (The Mount Airy News August 24, 1981, page 3A)
On the same page, another article described the bridesmaids' luncheon and the wedding reception with the same focus on details.
In addition to weddings, showers, and other parties, other social events such as meetings of clubs were described. For example, an article in the August 25th issue reports, "The Helping Hands Homemakers Club held their regular monthly meeting at the Volunteer Fire Department in Pilot Mountain. 8 members were present. A program on plants and how to care for them was presented." This shows that in 1981, people were still concerned with local events, no matter how large or small they were.
Just as the 1950 paper, the 1981 paper featured stories about what local people were doing. Although it did not include as many accounts of vacations and visitors, it did feature stories about individuals. For example, an article published on August 24th reported on a girl from Mount Airy who served on the orientation committee at Peace College. Also, on August 26th, a story reported on a seven-year-old girl from Mount Airy who competed in the North Carolina Charm Pageant in Raleigh. It says, "For the talent division Jennifer played the piano. She chose the Rainbow Connection and dressed as Kermit the Frog." These articles are very similar to the detailed accounts of social events in the 1950 papers.
While the 1981 issues did not include gossip columns, they did offer reports of crimes, citations, and divorces. For example, a lengthy article in the August 26th issue reported:
A 15-year-old Surry Co. juvenile has been charged in connection with the theft of 3 late model cars in Mount Airy within the past month. Juvenile petitions charging three counts of auto larceny were issued yesterday for the youth, whose name and address cannot be released. (The Mount Airy News August 26, 1981, page9A)
Unlike the 1950 issues, the paper could not always release names in 1981. However, this article served the same basic purpose as the "Passing Parade" articles: to interest readers.
On August 25th, the paper published a list entitled "Divorces Granted to 10 Area Couples" that named the former couples and their original counties of origin. Similarly, the article titled "Citations Issued" on page 3A of the August 24th issue listed all police tickets given in the previous week. It included, "Howard W. McHone, Jr, 27, Florida, assault and battery; Harry Lee Goins, 18, Mount Airy, running stop sign;. . . Ernest Issac Hall, 50, drunk and disruptive." These articles show that the style and subjects differed from 1950, but the sensational purpose remained the same.
Conclusion
The 1950 issues of the Mount Airy News certainly reveal how small and intimate Mount Airy was. The articles about local people imply that everyone knew everyone else. Articles about house-guests and vacations that made the front page show that people must have been truly concerned with events in the town, no matter how small they were. Mount Airy was much smaller in the fifties than it was in the eighties, and the differences in the papers illustrate this fact. For example, on February 10th 1950, the following missing items were reported in the "Lost and Found" section of the classified advertisements: "Lost: Partial plate with six teeth. Reward to finder. . . Lost: Pair of glasses, blue shell frame. Reward." Obviously, Mount Airy had to have been much more small and intimate if people thought they could find their missing dentures and glasses by reporting them in the paper. In 1981, the paper reported on more events and people, and the stories were less intimate. This reflects the fact that Mount Airy was indeed larger.
However, in 1981, the Mount Airy News still revealed many small-town qualities, especially through the detailed descriptions of events and individuals in society. The pictures and in-depth accounts of weddings, parties, meetings, and other local news show that the citizens of Mount Airy were still interested in their town. Even though the paper also published state and national news, it did not overlook local stories. However, several changes are evident in the ways that the local news was presented. First, the language used in 1950 was much more relaxed and intimate, while the language used in 1981 was more professional and brief. For example, in the "Passing Parade" on February 10th 1950, a segment said, "They say that Barbara Fowler is giving a dance at the country club Saturday night - we recken' it's so." This slang, relaxed language is much different from the more formal, straight-forward language used to report news about individuals in 1981. For example, on August 26th, an article reported "Charles Lindberg York, Sr., no operator's license, sentenced to 30 days, ordered pay cost of $25."
Also, the topics differed somewhat from 1950 to 1981. While the 1950 papers discussed mostly small parties and dates, the 1981 papers included divorces and crimes. This could be due to several reasons. Possible reasons could include that there was more crime in 1981. Also, this difference could be due to the fact that news about crime was more apparent in other forms of the press, such as television, and so people were more interested.
The Mount Airy News definitely changed in many ways between 1950 and 1981. It became published more frequently, and it included state and national news as well as local news. However, news about local society was just as important in 1981 as it was in 1950. Although small changes such as writing styles and topics changed, the basic qualities of the news and the reasons for publishing it remained the same. This shows that although Mount Airy became more modern between 1950 and 1981, it still remained a small town with small-town interests, just as it still is today.
The Mount Airy News. February 3, 1950.
The Mount Airy News. February 10, 1950.
The Mount Airy News. August 24-August 28, 1981.
Coleridge's ballad "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" offers several interpretations and themes. While some say that it is a story about sin and the purging of sin, others say it represents a dream voyage. Some believe the poem is about nature, while others think it is about an alienated individual. However, I believe that the message of the poem is very clear. Although the poem refers to many different sorts of supernatural events and forces, Coleridge gives us ample hints to see that the poem has a truly Christian message.
First and most obviously, we see the importance of Christianity in "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" through the direct references to Christian icons. The first direct reference is in Part 1 when the Albatross appears to the sailors. The Mariner says, "As if it had been a Christian soul,/ We hailed it in God's name"(424). Another similar reference is when the sailors see the skeleton ship and the Mariner says, "Heaven's Mother send us grace!"(427). Also, in Part 5, the Mariner says, "To Mary Queen the praise be given!" and the side note reads, "By grace of the holy Mother, the ancient Mariner is refreshed with rain"(430). All of these examples refer to Mary, mother of Jesus, and portray her as an omnipotent force. These references, among others, are obvious hints that show us, despite the other natural forces mentioned in the poem, "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" is definitely a Christian text.
Other references to Christianity are not quite as direct as the ones previously mentioned, but they can also be used as hints. For example, the actual frame of the poem involves a guest of a wedding, a Christian ceremony. Although all weddings are certainly not Christian, we can probably assume that this one is. The attendants listed, the traditions described, and the probability that it takes place in England can lead us to believe that it is indeed a Christian wedding. If this is correct, it is very significant. Framing a story of Christianity with another definitely emphasizes the message. Another important, although more discreet, hint is the importance of prayer in the poem. For example, the Mariner prays to God when he is distressed in Part 6. He says, "And I with sobs did pray--/ O let me be awake, my God!/ Or let me sleep away"(434-435). This is clearly an reference to Christianity because he prays to one God. Prayer is very important to the Mariner, as we see in the part of the poem when he temporarily loses his ability to pray. Finally, the most important stanza of the poem, the moral of the story, refers to prayer, "He prayeth best, who loveth best"(438).
In addition to these direct references to aspects of Christianity, the interference of supernatural forces throughout the poem reveals its Christian message. Although Coleridge names many of these as unique, non-Christian forces-- the "Polar Spirit" for example-- the important message is that there is clearly a higher power constantly intervening. The many supernatural beings, such as the angels, the spirits, and the Moon, seem to be under one all-powerful force, or God. For example, when the angelic spirits enter the bodies of the sailors, the side note says, "But not by the souls of the men, nor by the daemons of earth or middle air, but by a blessed troop of angelic spirits, sent down by the invocation of the guardian saint"(431). This shows that these many spirits involved in the story are all connected to God and heaven. The Hermit can also be seen as one of these spirits, or as a symbol of Jesus. He is called "The holy Hermit"(437), and the Mariner begs him for penance for his sin. He says, "O shrieve me, shrieve me, holy man!"(437). After this, the Mariner is given his punishment, and begins his ongoing penance for killing the Albatross. Because the Hermit can forgive the Mariner, yet he is a man, he is much like Jesus.
The lesson of the poem about sin and repentance is crucial to its Christian message. Because the Mariner killed the good omen, the Albatross, he was punished. He watched his men die, and then he had to live the rest of his life in guilt. In order to be forgiven for his sin, he must retell the story over and over, telling its message to strangers. The crucial lesson to be learned is:
He prayeth best, who loveth best All things both great and small; For the dear God who loveth us, He made and loveth all.(438)
This message is certainly Christian. It says that we should love all of nature because God has created it, and God loves all of it. If we do not love all of nature, we will have to repent for we will have sinned. The Mariner spreads this message like the disciples spread the word of God. When he sees someone who needs to hear the story, God overcomes him with a feeling of urgency to tell him or her. After hearing the story, the listener is changed. Coleridge writes of the wedding-guest, "A sadder and wiser man,/ He rose the morrow morn"(438).
After reading "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner," we as readers are like the wedding-guest. We have in a sense heard the story and learned the lesson. Thus, Coleridge is not simply telling a story of a Mariner who learns and then teaches a Christian message, he is actually teaching the message himself. Therefore, this final aspect of the poem is proof that "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" is indeed Christian in purpose and meaning.
In the General Prologue to the Canterbury Tales, Chaucer presents the Wife of Bath as a real woman whom he wants the audience to like and respect. From his first comment about her when he tells us that she is unfortunately somewhat deaf, yet a talented cloth-maker, we can tell that Chaucer likes this character. He goes on to comment on her authority among other women, her bold fashion sense, her unique appearance, her worldliness, her sense of humor, and, finally, her knowledge of love as an art form. Thus, our first impression of the Wife of Bath from a third person perspective is a positive one. Chaucer gives us this description to encourage us to like the Wife of Bath and appreciate her point of view. However, the real complexity of her character is revealed in her prologue and tale. We learn a great deal about the Wife of Bath through her own description of her life in her prologue. After this, Chaucer shows us even more about her through how she tells her tale. Therefore, the Wife of Bath's Tale broadens the description of her given in her prologue, and thus increases our understanding of her perspective.
First, the Wife of Bath's Tale is a comparison of her current situation as described in her prologue. For example, her fifth husband Janekin is very similar to the knight in the tale. They are both much younger than their wives, for instance. The Wife of Bath says of Janekin's age in her prologue, "He was, I trowe, twenty winter old, / And I was fourty"(605-6). The knight in the tale is also very young, especially compared to the old hag whom he must marry. Also, the knight's rape of the maiden is similar to Janekin's physical abuse of the Wife of Bath. She makes several references to Janekin hitting her in the prologue of her tale that imply he is abusive. For example, she says, "And yit he to me the most shrewe: / That feele I on my ribbes al by rewe, / And evere shal unto myn ending day. / But in oure bed he was so fresh and gay"(WBP 511-14). This parallels the knight's rape of the maiden in the tale. The Wife of Bath describes this act, unlike her other references to sexual behavior, very quickly and eloquently. She says simply in one line: "By verray force he rafte hir maidenhood"(WBT 894). This brief way of describing the rape is similar to her attitude about her husband's abuse. Although she admits he has hurt her, she focuses on how he pleases her in the bedroom. In both cases, she is willing to somewhat forgive the man, or at least allow him to redeem himself, for his oppressive behavior. This attitude reflects her complex feelings toward men that are discussed in depth in both her prologue and tale. The women in the tale's forgiveness of the knight is the Wife of Bath's way of justifying her husband's abuse. She never says that the behavior is acceptable, but it is forgivable if the man makes up for it in other ways.
In addition to the knight's similarity to Janekin, the old hag in the tale is similar to the Wife of Bath. First, obviously, they are both old. The Wife of Bath sympathizes with the old woman because she knows how age makes people less sexually attractive. She tells us in her prologue that her fourth husband had affairs with younger women. She says, "But age, allas, that al wol envenime, / Hath me biraft my beautee and my pith" (WBP 480-81). Similarly, the woman in the tale is old and unattractive. The knight even greets her by calling her "moder"(WBT 1011). However, with this age comes wisdom in both the Wife of Bath and the old woman. The old woman in the tale is clearly very wise. Not only does she answer the question of what women most want, but she also successfully manipulates the knight into loving and sacrificing himself to her. The Wife of Bath proves herself to be just as wise as this woman. For example, in her prologue, she intelligently and confidently contradicts the common belief that sexuality and multiple marriages are sins. She does this through references to the Bible and mythology as well as through bold expressions of truth and analogies. In her tale, she also reveals her intellectuality and strong opinions. For example, the tangent about King Midas shows her knowledge of classic literature (which she tells us in the prologue her fifth husband read to her). Also, the woman's argument about true nobility shows how wise the wife is. In addition to referring to such intellectuals as Dante and Boethius, she also presents a moral and wise argument, "That he is gentil that dooth gentil deedes"(WBT 1176). Chaucer definitely wants to portray this woman as very wise so we will appreciate her opinions. In addition to the specific old woman, the Wife also mentions again in the tale that widows are wise. In reference to the women of the court, she says "Ful many a noble wif, and many a maide,/ And many a widwe - for that they been wise"(WBT 1032-33) prepared to hear the knight's answer. The Wife of Bath's Tale definitely emphasized that she is wise, which is also mentioned in the prologue.
Most important, the Wife is like the old woman because they share the same desires. Just like the Wife tells us about herself in her prologue, the old woman wants love and sovereignty from her relationship. Both women must go through processes to fulfill their desires, but both women succeed in the end. Just as the Wife tells us she has had to trick and deceive her husbands into giving her sovereignty, the woman in her tale has to manipulate the knight into succumbing to her. The Wife of Bath emphasizes this similarity to justify her desires and show that they are not unique to her; other wise women in the world feel the same way.
However, the differences between the prologue and the tale are just as important in Chaucer's message as the similarities. These differences represent the Wife's fantasies, how she would like the world to be. The tale is clearly fictional and takes place in a make believe world where fairies dwell and women receive respect. For example, the Wife says of the knight's crime: "For which oppression was swich clamour,/ And swich pursuite unto the King Arthour,/ That dampned was this knight for to be deed/ By cours of lawe, and shoulde han lost his heed"(WBT 895-8). This punishment is very unrealistic for a rapist, even in today's society. However, we can assume that Chaucer incorporates this into the tale to show how the Wife of Bath would like things to be. Also, the king's giving the power of decision over the knight's fate to the queen is significant. The queen controls the situation; thus, we see that the Wife of Bath would like for women to have more authority in society.
In addition to the just world in which the Wife sets her tale, we also see her desires through the old woman's magic. The woman can acquire sovereignty over her husband much easier than the Wife ever has because she uses magic. The Wife tells us in her prologue her methods of gaining sovereignty, which are complicated and immoral. She says, "Under that colour ahdde I many a mirthe./ For al swich wit is yiven us in oure birthe:/ Deceite, weeping, spinning God hath yive/ To wommen kindely whil they may live"(WBP 405-8). She must use her "gifts" from God to trick and deceive her husbands to have any control over them. In contrast, the woman in the tale can simply use her magical powers to transform herself and overpower her husband. This is obviously a fantasy of the Wife of Bath.
Clearly, Chaucer gives us a complex, detailed picture of the Wife
of Bath through his description of her in the General Prologue, her description
of herself in the prologue to her tale, and the reflections of her personality
throughout her tale. He describes the Wife of Bath so vividly as a realistic
person so we will relate to her, respect her, and consider her opinions. Chaucer
does this because the Wife of Bath's views are probably similar to some of his
own that he wants to express through her. He probably agrees that some of his
society's common beliefs about sex and marriage are ridiculous and unfair to
women. He also probably believes that women, such as the Wife of Bath, can be
intellectual and admirable. In addition, he probably finds the Wife of Bath
interesting, and he wants to make her character as complex and entertaining
for his audience as possible.