On the recommendation of David MacBride, author of Historical Account of a New Method of Treating the Scurvy at Sea, containing ten cases which show that this destructive disease may be easily and effectually cured without the aid of fresh vegetable diet (1764), the British Admiralty issued 40 bushels of malt in hogsheads, together with portable soup, but only a few bottles of rob of lemons for James Cook's first voyage in 1768.

The ship's company had in general been very healthy owing in great measure to Sour Krout, Portable Soup and Malt; the first two were served to the people, the one on beef days and the other on banyan days. Wort was made of the malt and at the discretion of the Surgeon given to every man that had the least symptoms of scurvy upon him. By this means, and the care and vigilance of Mr Monkhouse the Surgeon, this disease was prevented from getting a footing in the ship.

Writing shortly before his death James Cook complained that:

Every innovation whatever, tho ever so much to their advantage, is sure to meet with the highest disapprobation from Seamen: Portable Soup and Sour Krout were at   first condemned by them as stuff not fit for human beings to eat. Few men have introduced into their ships more novelties in the way of victuals and drink than I have done. It has, however, in a great measure been owing to such little innovations that I have always kept my people generally speaking free from that dreadful distemper the Scurvy.

It is a little known fact that James Cook's report to the Admiralty based on his experiences from his first and second voyages came to delay the introduction of lemon juice (later lime juice) against scurvy in the Royal Navy for twenty years or until 1795.

Updated 1996-06-01 by Lars.Bruzelius@udac.se

The Maritime History Virtual Archives | Naval Medicine.
Copyright © 1996 Lars Bruzelius. _

The Duty of the Clerk, Pilot, Mate, Surgeon and Sea-men of a Ship, according to the Custom of France.

…

The Duty of the Surgeon.

In every Ship, even in the Fishing-Ships, making long Voyages, there shall be one or two Surgeons, according to the Circumstances of the Voyages and Number of the Persons.

2. None shall be received as Surgeons on board of Ships, till they have been examined and found capable by two Master Surgeons, who shall give their Certificates.

3. The Owners shall be obliged to provide the Surgeons Chest well stored with Drugs, Ointments, Medicaments, and other things nocessary [sic] for treating Sick Persons during the Voyage; and the Surgeon shall provide the Instruments of his Profession.

4. The Chest shall be visited by the most Ancient Master Surgeon of the Place, and by the most Ancient Apothecary, provided it be not the same that furnished the Drugs.

5. The Surgeons shall be obliged to get their Chest visited, at least 3 Days before the Departure; and the Master Surgeon and Apothecary, to do it within four and twenty Hours after they are thereto required, on Pain of thirty Livres Fine, and the Damages of Demurage.

6. No Master shall receive any Person to serve on board his Ship as Surgeon, without producing a Copy of the Attestations of his Capacity, and of the Condition of his Chest in due Form, under Pain of fifty Livres Fine.

7. We enjoin the Surgeon of Ship, in case they discover and contagious Distemper, to acquaint forthwith the Master, that he may take his Measures accordingly.

8. They shall exact nor receive nothing of the Marriners sick or wounded in the Service of the Ship, under Pain of Restitution, and an Arbitrary Fine.

9. The Surgeon not to leave the Vessel in which he is engaged, before the Voyage is accomplish'd, under Pain of the Loss of his VVages, or being fined in one hundred Livres, and of paying the like Sum for Damages to the Master.

[pp 137-139]
 

Transcribed by Lars.Bruzelius@udac.se

The Maritime History Virtual Archives homepage.

Copyright © 1996 Lars Bruzelius. _

1588 Sir Francis Drake destroys the Spanish Armada

1601 Lancaster gives three tablespoons of lemon juice a day to sailors on one ship. Most stay healthy.

1639 Woodall indicates in The Surgeons Mate that experience shows that lemons are very effective in curing scurvy

1707 Queen's provides each seaman with weekly provisions that includes port, peas, oatmeal, butter, cheese, beef, pork

1747 Lind prescribes two oranges or one lemon for scurvy patients. Patients cured in a few days.

1778 Admiral Hood selects the Albemarle, captained by Nelson, to transport Prince William to the West Indies

1793 Nelson assists in the taking of Toulon

1795 British Navy adopts scurvy technology; scurvy wiped out

1805 Nelson's ships break the French and Spanish blockade during the Battle of Trafalgar.

1865 British Board of Trade adopts similar policy for Merchant Marine

1917 Vitamin C deficiency pinpointed as the specific cause of Scurvy

1933 The first chemical synthesis of vitamin C

1937 Szent-Gyorgi wins the Noble Prize for demonstrating how cells obtain energy and the chemical isolation of vitamin C

 Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), a reducing agent, is necessary to maintain the enzyme prolyl hydroxylase in an active form, most likely by keeping
its iron atom in a reduced state. The precursor molecule to the protein collagen, procollagen, contains an unusual amino acid sequence in that every
third amino acid is a glycine and contains a high frequency of two amino acids not found in any other proteins - hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine. These latter
two amino acids are converted from proline and lysine, respectively, after the procollagen molecule has been synthesized. The hydroxylation of proline and
lysine in procollagen is carried out by the enzyme prolyl hydroxylase using vitamin C as a cofactor.

 A vitamin C deficiency results in an underhydroxylation of proline and lysine in collagen which results in a lower melting temperature of the resulting
collagen fibers which causes a breakdown of the protein collagen needed for connective tissue, bones and dentin, the major portion of teeth. Collagen is a
cemeting material that binds cells together, and is an essential connective tissue protein in the body. Whenever the body is wounded, collagen glues the
separated tissues together to form a scar.

 A lack of collagen causes the walls of the body's blood capillaries to break down and hemorrhaging occurs in cells throughout the body. When capillaries lose
the "glue" that holds them together, symptoms of scurvy appear.  An affected person becomes weak and has joint pain. Internal hemorrhages
cause black-and-blue marks to appear on the skin. At the first visible signs of scurvy, raised red spots appear on the skin around the hair follicles of the
legs, buttocks, arms and back. When the tiny capillaries of the hair follicles hemorrhage, the hair-producing cells do not receive the nourishment needed for
the hairs to grow normally. Consequently, the skin becomes flecked with small lesions that begin to appear on the body after about five months on a diet
deficient in vitamin C. These lesions were the "spots" that James Lind observed on the skin of his sick men. Gums hemorrhage and their tissue becomes weak and
spongy. Dentin, which lies below the enamel and is part of the root of teeth, breaks down. Teeth loosen and eating becomes difficult and painful. A
personal account of scurvy.

  James Lind's observation that citrus fruits contained something that counteracted the ravages of scurvy was followed by his development of a method
for the concentration and preservation of citrus fruit juices for use at sea. In 1795, the British Royal Navy provided a daily ration of lime or lemon juice to
all its men. English sailors to this day are called "limeys", for lime was the term used at the time for both lemons and limes. It was not until 1932, that
W.A. Waugh and C.G. King at the University of Pittsburgh, and Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, a Hungarian scientist, isolated and synthesized ascorbic
acid, or vitamin C.  Curiously, only primates and guinea pigs are unable to manufacture vitamin C on their own, having lost the genetic information necessary for the production of this important cofactor.

This document maintained by Robert J. HuskeyLast updated on September 2, 1998.