Sociology 245 Howard Aldrich

Organizations 202 Hamilton Hall

Fall, 1995 Office Hours: 1:30-3:00, MW

Class meets Monday and Wednesday, 9:30-10:45 AM. Bring coffee and let's start on time.

This course takes an evolutionary approach to explaining organizational change. We review recent literature, judging it against the criterion of how well it accounts for the origin, persistence, transformation, and death of organizations.

E-mail: If you don't already have an e-mail account, please get one (they are free). We will conduct some class business via e-mail -- it saves trees and time.

You can reach me at: HOWARD_ALDRICH@UNC.EDU.

Textbooks

At the UNC Campus Store:

Herbert Kaufman, Time, Chance, and Organizations (2nd ed.). Chatham House.

(May not be in for a while.)

At Copytron:

Howard E. Aldrich, Organizations Evolving. Four chapters.

Overview of the Field

Students who want a general overview of the sociology of organizations field should consult the following books:

(1) Charles Perrow. 1986. Complex Organizations: A Critical Essay.

(2) W. Richard Scott. Latest Edition. Organizations, Rational, Natural, and Open Systems.

Abbreviations Used in This Syllabus

AJS: American Journal Sociology JM: Journal of Management

AMJ: Academy of Management Journal JMI: Journal of Management Inquiry

AMR: Academy of Management Review JMS: Journal of Management Studies

ARS: Annual Review of Sociology MS: Management Science

ASQ: Administrative Science Quarterly Org: Organization

ASR: American Sociological Review OrgS: Organization Science

CMR: California Management Review OS: Organization Studies

ETP: Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice SMJ: Strategic Management Journal

HR: Human Relations SSS: Semiotic Sociological Scene

ICC: Industrial and Corporate Change WES: Work, Employment, and Society

JBV: Journal of Business Venturing WO: Work and Occupations

Course Format

During the first week of class, I will break the class into three or four person teams (see handout on "Working in Groups"). The teams are responsible for choosing two days' reading(s), beginning with September 13. The two-day segment consists of consecutive days constituting an integrated intellectual unit. Teams make their choices after conducting a diligent search of the books and journals relevant to their section of the course. (For starters, see my list of abbreviations, above.)

For the first cycle, each team will choose readings for one day. In the second cycle, teams will choose readings for two days.

I will meet with each team, as often as necessary, to help them in their search. To get some idea of what I've been working on for the past few years, take a look at the Appendix, p 12. (Yes, this syllabus, already lengthy, has an Appendix!)

Choices are due one week before the class meeting. E.g., for a class on the 14th, reading lists are due on the 7th.

The lists should be word processed and ready for distribution to the class.

We will put all selected readings on reserve in the Sociology-Political Science Library, Hamilton Hall.

The teams are responsible for making two photocopies of the chapters or articles they choose, and making certain that they are put on reserve. Or, if they choose a book, they are responsible for making sure that two copies are available in the Sociology-Political Science Library, Hamilton Hall, OR that copies are available elsewhere in the Triangle Area.

The team's responsibility in their class session: In the class session where the readings they chose are discussed, the team will provide a context for the discussion by answering the following questions (not necessarily in this order):

(1) How did you conduct your search?

(2) Why did you choose THESE particular readings?

(3) In what ways are these readings linked to what we have read previously?

(4) What important readings did you omit?

(5) Can you think of an empirical project that would be a logical next step from these readings?

Note: Teams should NOT "make a presentation" of the readings themselves. No speeches, no lectures. Everyone will have done the readings, and everyone will participate in helping us understand what the readings mean for our investigation of organizational evolution.

How to Search for Stuff

As we explore how to make selections from the vast amount of stuff available out there, I will update this section. For a start, I suggest reading the "starting point" article/book for the section. Then, use the SSCI to see what authors in 1995 are still citing the starting point reading, and why.

Look through the latest issues of the journals listed in the abbreviations list, above, and find recent articles on themes similar to the ones your team is considering. Look at the references in their bibliographies. For articles more than two years old, go to the SSCI and see how often they have been cited. You will be surprised!

In the library: SSCI

Library On-Line Catalog

ABI-INFORM

Journal Indices

References sections of journal articles

Source books on evolution and organizations:

Carroll, Glenn R. (ed.). 1988. Ecological Models of Organization. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.

Singh, Jitendra V. (ed.). 1990. Organizational Evolution. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Hodgson. 1993. Economics and Evolution. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.

Baum, Joel and Jitendra Singh (eds.) 1994. Evolutionary Dynamics of Organizations. New York: Oxford University Press.

Carroll, Glenn R. and Michael T. Hannan (eds.). 1995. Organizations in Industry: Strategy, Structure, and Selection. New York: Oxford University Press.

Term Paper

Topics: You can choose a topic from within the organizational evolution framework. Your paper should focus on some aspect of foundings, transformations, or disbandings.

We will use feedback on drafts within your teams to insure the continuous improvement of papers over the course of the term.

Format of the paper: Papers should be word-processed, double-spaced, and follow standard ASQ's reference format. You will have a hard time saying much of substance in less than 15 pages, and beyond 30 pages, even the most diligent reader gets bored. Choose your title carefully -- a good title can inspire you, and raise expectations among potential readers.

Key dates:

September 6: Turn in a one-paragraph statement of intent on a possible topic(s).

September 27: Commit yourself to a topic by turning in another paragraph on your paper's theme.

October 2: Turn in a one-page sketch of what you've discovered so far about your topic.

October 19: Begin serious discussions in local coffee houses with your teammates about what you're doing with your paper topic.

October 30: Turn in an outline of your paper -- one page will do.

November 15: Circulate a draft of your paper to your teammates and get their comments (all people who read and comment on your paper will be acknowledged on your title page -- I look very favorably upon such mentions).

November 27: Due date (10 days from the end of the term -- this early date allows me to give you feedback on the paper before the term ends).

December 6: I return your papers, with comments.

I. INTRODUCTION

08/23 Wed First Class Meeting

I will be flying in from Washington, D.C., arriving at RDU at 8:45 am, and so I will be a bit late. Until I arrive...

...read over the syllabus, talk about it, meet your classmates, and get into the cooperative learning spirit!

08/28 Mon Evolutionary Organization Theory: The Aldrich View

H.E. Aldrich. Forthcoming. "Communities, Populations, Organizations." Organizations Evolving, Ch. 1: 1-33.

Richard Dawkins. The Blind Watchmaker, Ch. 2: 21-41.

On reserve in Sociology-Political Science Library, Hamilton Hall.

Set up teams: teams begin meeting to choose readings for their assigned days.

08/30 Wed H.E. Aldrich. Forthcoming. "Communities, Populations, Organizations." Organizations Evolving, Ch. 1: 33-54.

John Langton. 1984. "The Ecological Theory of Bureaucracy." ASQ, 29, 4 (September): 330-354. On reserve.

Charles Perrow. 1985. "Comment on Langton." ASQ, 30, 2 (June): 278-283. On reserve.

John Langton. 1985. "Reply to Perrow." ASQ, 30, 2 (June): 284-288.

On reserve.

Questions of the day:

(1) What should be Perrow's reply to Langton?

(2) Why are most empirical investigations carried out at the organizational level (or below), rather than at the population or community level?

09/04 Mon LABOR DAY: NO CLASS

II. FOUNDINGS

09/06 Wed H.E. Aldrich. Forthcoming. "Emergence: New Organizations, New Populations." Organizations Evolving, Ch. 2: 1-24.

Bo Burlingham. 1995. "How to Succeed in Business in 4 Easy Steps." INC (July): 30-42. On reserve.

Written assignment:

One-paragraph statement of possible term paper topic.

Questions of the day:

(1) Why don't more organizations start big?

(2) Should we invest more resources in studying nascent entrepreneurs? Why or why not?

09/11 Mon H.E. Aldrich. Forthcoming. "Boundaries." Organizations Evolving, Ch. 4: 1-47.

Questions of the day:

(1) Are some people just not cut out to be "constructed" as organizational members?

(2) How often do you think the "constructing members" process breaks down? Why?

09/13 Wed H.E. Aldrich. Forthcoming. "Boundaries." Organizations Evolving, Ch. 4: 47-66.

Team reading: Larry Hirschhorn and Thomas Gilmore. "The New Boundaries of the 'Boundaryless' Company," (May/June): 157-175.

09/18 Mon H.E. Aldrich. Forthcoming. "Emergence: New Organizations, New Populations." Organizations Evolving, Ch. 2: 25-62.

Team reading: "The Conditions of Labor" from a Labor History textbook.

09/20 Wed H.E. Aldrich. Forthcoming. "Foundings: Reproducing Populations." Organizations Evolving, Ch. 3: 1-32.

Team reading: Erich Studer-Ellis. 1995. "Springboards to Motarboards: Women's College Foundings in Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania." Social Forces, 73, 3 (March): 1051-1070.

09/25 Mon H.E. Aldrich. Forthcoming. "Foundings: Reproducing Populations." Organizations Evolving, Ch. 3: 32-54.

Team reading: Florida, Richard and Martin Kenney. 1991. "The Transfer of Japanese Industrial Organization to the U.S." ASR, 56, 3 (June): 381-398.

III. TRANSFORMATIONS

09/27 Wed Transformation -- Starting Point:

Howard E. Aldrich and Ellen Auster. 1986. "Even Dwarfs Started Small: Liabilities of Age and Size and Their Strategic Implications." Pp. 165-198 in Barry Staw and L. L. Cummings (eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol. VIII. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. On reserve.

Alternative Starting Point:

Arthur Stinchcombe. "Social Structure and Organizations." Pp. 142-193 in James G. March (ed.), Handbook of Organizations. On reserve.

Written assignment:

One-paragraph description of term paper topic.

Possible Themes for the Next 10 Classes:

(Each team should choose a theme -- this is a rolling process, and once a theme is picked, subsequent classes should move on to other themes.)

( 1) Exploration and exploitation in organizational learning

( 2) Loose coupling and why it's good

( 3) Using organizational economics to explain transformation

( 4) Founding characteristics, imprinting, and organizational change

( 5) Strategy, CEO specialization, and succession

( 6) Architectural innovation: the reconfiguration of existing product technologies

( 7) Competition and coexistence in organizational communities

( 8) Organizational change and performance under conditions of fundamental environmental transformation

( 9) Selection vs. adaptation: an absolute distinction?

(10) Alliances: do they have survival value for member firms?

10/02 Mon Transformation

Written assignment:

One page on what you've learned so far about your term paper topic.

Team Readings: Hannan. Michael T. and John Henry Freeman. 1984. "Structural Inertia and Organizational Change." ASR, 49 (April): 149-164.

Dawn Kelly and Terry L. Amburgey. 1991. "Organizational Intertia and Momentum: A Dynamic Model of Strategic Change." AMJ, 34, 3: 591-612.

10/04 Wed Transformation

NO CLASS MEETING

10/09 Mon Transformation

Team Reading: Rothschild, Joyce. 1976. "Conditions Facilitating Participatory-Democratic Organizations." Sociological Inquiry, 46, 2: 75-86.

Staggenborg, Suzanne. 1989. "Stability and Innovation in the Women's Movement: A Comparison of Tow Movement Organizations." Social Problems, 36, 1 (February): 75-92.

10/11 Wed Transformation

Team Readings: Amburgey, Terry L., Dawn Kelly, and William Barnett. 1993. "Resetting the Clock: The Dynamics of Organizational Change and Failure." ASQ, 38: 51-73.

Richard McEnally. 1985. "Does Management Matter?" (Fall). UNC Business.

10/16 Mon Transformation

Team Readings: Haveman, Heather A. 1992. "Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Organizational Change and Performance Under Conditions of Fundamental Environmental Transformation." ASQ, 37 (March): 48-75.

Delacroix, Jacques and Anand Swaminathan. 1991. "Cosmetic, Speculative, and Adaptive Change in the Wine Industry: A Longitudinal Analysis," ASQ, 36, 4 (December): 631-661.

10/18 Wed Transformation

Coffee house assignment:

Begin talking about your term paper topic with your teammates.

Team Readings: Astley, W. Graham and C.J. Fombrun. 1987. "Organizational Communities: An Ecological Perspective." Pp. 163-185 in S.B. Bacharach (ed.), Research in the Sociology of Organizations, 5. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Kristian Kreiner and Majken Schultz. 1993. "Informal Collaboration in R & D. The Formation of Networks Across Organizations." OS, 14, 2: 189-210.

10/23 Mon Transformation

Team Readings: J. Douglas Orton and Karl E. Weick. 1990. "Loosely Coupled Systems: A Reconceptualization." AMR, 15, 2 (April): 203-223. CP 32.

Irene S. Rubin. 1979. "Retrenchmen, Loose Structure and Adaptability in the University." Sociology of Education, 52 (October): 211-222.

10/25 Wed Transformation

James G. March and Barbara Levitt. 1988. "Organizational Learning." ARS, 14: 319-440.

Karl Weick. 1991. "The Nontraditional Quality of Organizational Learning." OS, 2, 1: 116-124.

10/30 Mon Transformation

James G. March. 1991. "Exploration and Exploitation in Organizational Learning." OS, 2, 1: 71-87.

Philip W. Yetton, Kim D. Johnston, and Jane F. Craig. 1994. "Computer-Aided Architects: A Case Study of IT and Strategic Change." Sloan Management Review (Summer): 57-67.

Written assignment:

One-page outline of your term paper.

11/01 Wed Transformation: Summing Up

Andrew H. Van de Ven and Marshall Scott Poole. 1995. "Explaining Development and Change in Organizations." AMR, 20, 3 (July): 510-540.

IV. DISBANDING AND DECLINE

11/06 Mon Disbanding and Decline -- Starting Point:

Herbert Kaufman. 1985. Time, Chance, and Organizations. Chatham House. Purchase at the UNC Student Stores.

Alternative starting point: H.E. Aldrich. 1979. Organizations and Environments. On reserve.

Possible Themes for the Next Seven (7) Classes:

(1) Does management matter?

(2) The process of organizational death

(3) Resetting the clock: how often is change fatal?

(4) What happens to the members of a disbanded organization?

(5) Does history -- era, epoch, period, century, etc. -- dominate the disbanding process?

(6) As information technology spreads, and organizations get smarter, is the disbanding rate going to drop?

(7) The stigma of bankruptcy: spoiled organizational image and its management

110/8 Wed Disbanding and Decline

The theme for Wednesday, Nov 8, is "Does management/leadership matter?" in the context of decline.

Canella, Albert A. Jr. and Michael Lubatkin. 1993. "Succession as a sociopolitical process: Internal impediments to outsider selection." AMJ, 36, 4 (August): 763-793.

McCune, Jenny C. 1995. "A day in the life: New Orleans' Top Cop." Mangement Review (September): 44-49.

11/13 Mon Disbanding and Decline

Sutton, Robert I. and Anita L. Callahan. 1987. "The Stigma of Bankruptcy: Spoiled Organizational Image and Its Management." AMJ, 30, 3 (September): 405-436.

William R. Krehbiel. 1994. "Back from the Brink." Chief Executive (October): 47-49.

11/15 Wed Disbanding and Decline

Haveman, Heather A. 1993. "Ghosts of Managers Past: Managerial Succession and Organizational Mortality." AMJ, 36, 4 (August): 864-881.

Michael Gatermann. 1986. "ITT's Empire in Decline?" Director (October): 67-70.

Written assignment:

Turn in to me, and circulate to your teammates, a draft copy of your term paper.

11/20 Mon Disbanding and Decline

Davis, Gerald F. Dristina A. Diekmann, and Catherine H. Tinsley. 1994. "The Decline and Fall of the Conglomerate Firm in the 1980s: The Deinstitutionalization of an Organizational Form." ASR, 59, 4 (August): 547-570.

"South-East Asia's Octopuses." 1993. The Economist (July 17th).

11/22 Wed FALL BREAK STARTS AT 1 PM.

Take the WHOLE DAY OFF!...

Work on Your Paper!

Meet with Team Mates!

11/27 Mon Disbanding and Decline

Sutton, Robert I. 1987. "The Process of Organizational Death: Disbanding and Reconnecting." ASQ, 32: 542-569.

Rush Loving, Jr. 1979. "W.T. Grant's Last Days." From Fortune magazine, in Kanter and Stein, Life in Organizations, pp. 400-412.

11/29 Wed Disbanding and Decline

V. Lee Hamilton, Clifford L. Broman, William S. Hoffman, and Deborah S. Renner. 1990. "Hard Times and Vulnerable People: Initial Effects of Plant Closing on Autoworkers' Mental Health." Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 31, 2 (June): 123-140.

Zipp, J and K. Lane. 1987. "Plant Closings and Control Over the Workplace: A Case Study." WO, 14, 1(February): 62-87.

12/04 Mon Disbanding and Decline: Summing Up

Joel A.C. Baum and Walter W. Powell. 1995. "Comment: Cultivating an Institutional Ecology of Organizations." ASR, 60, 4 (August): 529-538.

Michael T. Hannan and Glenn R. Carroll. 1995. "Cheap Talk about Legitimation: Reply to Baum and Powell." ASR, 60, 4 (August): 539-544.

V. CONCLUDING DAY

12/06 Wed LAST CLASS

What I learned from your papers.

Published articles and book chapters (selected list), since 1989:

I prepared to talk about these topics at the drop of a hat...

so be forewarned -- don't wear a hat to class!

Or, let me know ahead of time.

I. Entrepreneurship

A. Startups

Howard E. Aldrich. 1990. "Using an Ecological Perspective to Study Organizational Founding Rates." ETP, 14, 3 (Spring): 7-24.

Howard E. Aldrich and Gabriele Wiedenmayer. 1993. "From Traits to Rates: An Ecological Perspective on Organizational Foundings." Pp. 145-195 in Jerome Katz and Robert Brockhaus (eds.), Advances in Entrepreneurship, Firm Emergence, and Growth, I. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Gabriele Wiedenmayer, Howard E. Aldrich, and Udo H. Staber. 1995. "Von Gründerpersonen zu Gründungstraten: Organisationsgründungen aus Populationsökologischer Sicht." Die Betriebswirtschaft, 55, 2 (März/April): 221-236.

B. Ethnicity

Howard E. Aldrich and Roger Waldinger. 1990. "Ethnicity and Entrepreneurship." ARS, 16: 111-135. Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, Inc.

Roger Waldinger, Howard E. Aldrich, and Robin Ward. 1990. Ethnic Entrepreneurs: Immigrant Businesses in Industrial Societies. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

C. Networks

Howard E. Aldrich and Mary Ann von Glinow. 1992. "Personal Networks and Infrastructural Development." Pp. 125-145 in David V. Gibson, George Kozmetsky, and Raymond Smilor (eds.), The Technopolis Phenomenon: Smart Cities, Fast Systems, Global Networks. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.

Paola Dubini and Howard E. Aldrich. 1991. "Personal and Extend Networks Are Central to the Entrepreneurial Process." JBV, 6: 305-313.

Howard E. Aldrich, Pat Ray Reese, and Paola Dubini. 1991. "The Go-Between: Brokers' Roles in Entrepreneurial Networks." Pp. 554-555 in Neil Churchill et al. (eds.), Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research 1990. Wellesley, MA: Center for Entrepreneurial Studies, Babson College.

Howard E. Aldrich and Pat Ray Reese. 1994. "Does Networking Pay Off? A Panel Study of Entrepreneurs in the Research Triangle." Pp. 325-339 in Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research 1993. Wellesley, MA: Center for Entrepreneurial Studies, Babson College.

Pat Ray Reese and Howard E. Aldrich. Forthcoming. "Entrepreneurial Networks and Business Performance: A Panel Study of Small and Medium-Sized Firms in the Research Triangle." 1993 Global Entrepreneurship Conference Proceedings, 1995. London: Routledge.

Howard E. Aldrich and Tomoaki Sakano. 1995. "Unbroken Ties: How the Personal Networks of Japanese Business Owners Compare to Those in Other Nations." Forthcoming in Mark Fruin (ed.), Networks and Markets: Pacific Rim Investigations. New York: Oxford Press.

Howard E. Aldrich and Tomoaki Sakano. Forthcoming. "Is Japan Different? The Personal Networks of Japanese Business Owners Compared to Those in Four Other Industrialized Nations." KSU Economic and Business Review.

Udo Staber and Howard E. Aldrich. Forthcoming. "Cross-national Similarities in the Personal Networks of Small Business Owners: A Comparison of Two Regions in North America." Canadian Journal of Sociology.

D. Women Entrepreneurs

Howard E. Aldrich, Pat Ray Reese, and Paola Dubini. 1989. "Women on the Verge of a Breakthrough?: Networking Among Entrepreneurs in the United States and Italy." Journal of Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 1, 4: 339-356.

Howard E. Aldrich. 1989. "Networking Among Women Entrepreneurs." Pp. 103-132 in Oliver Hagan, Carol Rivchun, and Donald Sexton (eds.), Women Owned Businesses. New York: Praeger.

E. Human Resource Management

Howard E. Aldrich and Mary Ann Von Glinow. 1992. "Business Start-Ups: The HRM Imperative." Pp. 233-253 in Sue Birley and Ian C. MacMillan (eds.), International Perspectives on Entrepreneurship Research. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: North-Holland (Elsevier).

C. Marlene Fiol and Howard E. Aldrich. Forthcoming. "Collusion or Collision? Exploring the Boundaries of Family Business." In Alan Carsrud (ed.), The UCLA Frontiers of Family Firm Research. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Ted Baker and Howard E. Aldrich. Forthcoming. "Human Resource Management and New Ventures." Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research 1994. Wellesley, MA: Center for Entrepreneurial Studies, Babson College.

Ted Baker and Howard E. Aldrich. Forthcoming. "Prometheus Stretches: Identity, Knowledge Cumulation, and Multi-Employer Careers." In Michael Arthur and Denise Rousseau (eds.), Boundaryless Careers. New York: Oxford University Press.

II. Trade Associations

Howard E. Aldrich, Udo Staber, John J. Beggs, and Catherine Zimmer. 1990. "Minimalism and Organizational Mortality: Patterns of Disbandings Among American Trade Associations in the 20th Century." Pp. 21-52 in Jitendra V. Singh (ed.), Organizational Evolution, Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Howard E. Aldrich, Catherine R. Zimmer, Udo H. Staber, and John J. Beggs. 1994. "Minimalism, Mutualism, and Maturity: The Evolution of the American Trade Association Population in the 20th Century." Pp. 223-239 in Joel Baum and Jitendra Singh (eds.), Evolutionary Dynamics of Organizations. New York: Oxford. University Press.

III. Methods and Theory

Howard E. Aldrich, Arne Kalleberg, Peter Marsden, and James Cassell. 1989. "In Pursuit of Evidence: Five Sampling Procedures for Locating New Businesses." JBV, 4, 6 (November): 367-386.

Arne L. Kalleberg, Peter V. Marsden, Howard E. Aldrich, and James W. Cassell. 1990. "Comparing Organizational Sampling Frames." ASQ, 35, 4: 658-688.

Howard E. Aldrich. 1992. "Paradigm Incommensurability: Three Perspectives on Organizations." Pp. 17-45 in Michael I. Reed and Michael D. Hughes (eds.), Rethinking Organization: New Directions in Organizational Theory and Analysis. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Howard E. Aldrich and Peter V. Marsden. 1992. "Complex Organizations." In Edgar F. Borgatta and Marie L. Borgotta (eds.), The Encyclopedia of Sociology. New York: Macmillan.

Howard E. Aldrich. 1992. "Methods in Our Madness? Trends in Entrepreneurship Research." Pp. 191-213 in Donald L. Sexton and John D. Kasarda (eds.), The State of the Art of Entrepreneurship. Boston: PWS-Kent Publishing.

Howard E. Aldrich and C. Marlene Fiol. 1994. "Fools Rush In? The Institutional Context of Industry Creation." AMR, 19, 4: 645-670.

Howard E. Aldrich, Sally W. Fowler, Nina Liou, and Sara J. Marsh. 1994. "Other People's Concepts: Why and How We Sustain Historical Continuity in Our Field." Org, 1, 1: 65-80. London: Sage.

IV. R&D Consortia

Howard E. Aldrich and Toshihiro Sasaki. 1995. "R&D Consortia in the United States and Japan." Research Policy, 24, 2 (March): 301-316.

Howard E. Aldrich and Toshihiro Sasaki. 1995. "Governance Structure and Technology Transfer in R&D Consortia in the United States and Japan." Forthcoming in Jeffrey Liker, John Ettlie, and John Campbell (eds.), Managing Technology Development and Deployment in Manufacturing: U.S. and Japan Comparisons. Oxford University Press.