School Bells, Books and Brown:
Desegregating Public Schools in North Carolina
1954-1970
Dorothy Geraldine Counts faced an unruly crowd as she entered Charlotte's Harding High School, a formerly segregated school. 1957.
Source: Library of Congress. http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html
Introduction
About this Pathfinder
Welcome! This pathfinder is designed to help those new to historical research, especially high school students, begin their study of the school desegregation process in North Carolina. So often history can come across as boring and impersonal. This pathfinder will introduce you to sources that will help history come alive.
If after viewing this pathfinder you need additional help, be sure to use the "need help" information listed in this pathfinder.
Introduction to the School Desegregation Process in North Carolina
Welcome! This pathfinder is designed to help those new to historical research, especially high school students, begin their study of the school desegregation process in North Carolina. So often history can come across as boring and impersonal. This pathfinder will introduce you to sources that will help history come alive.
If after viewing this pathfinder you need additional help, be sure to use the "need help" information listed in this pathfinder.
Introduction to the School Desegregation Process in North Carolina
In 2004, the
United States celebrated the 50th anniversary of the Brown v, Board of Education verdict.
For students attending public schools in North Carolina fifty years
ago, desegregated schools were not the norm. In fact, before
1970, most public schools in North Carolina struggled to
comply with the 1954 Brown v. Board
of Education ruling.
Between 1954 and the mid-1960s, the North Carolina legislature enacted legislation to comply with Brown. One law, often referred to as the Pearsall Plan, allowed for school vouchers so that students could attend private schools rather than their desegregated local public schools. During this time period, the number of private schools greatly increased in the state. This voucher system, however, did not take hold. It was later deemed unconstitutional.
North Carolina lawmakers also relied on a freedom of choice plan to serve as the primary plan to desegregate public schools in the state. Freedom of choice did not, however, lead to desegregated schools. By the late 1960s, public schools in North Carolina faced elimination of federal funding if they did not fully desegregate their schools. Under pressure by the federal government, North Carolina schools desegregated their facilities. As you will see, this process was a struggle for many school districts. Many of the sources in this pathfinder will describe these struggles.
Library of Congress Subject Headings
If you decide to conduct your own online search at in the UNC Library Catalog, you should be aware of the Library of Congress Subject Headings. These headings can make it easier for you to find similar books on the same or similar topics. For school desegregation in North Carolina, the following Library of Congress Subject Headings will be helpful.
Also, if you need more explanation, ask a reference librarian. You can also click here for Wikipedia's article concerning LCSH.
School integration
Discrimination in education -- Law and legislation -- North Carolina
Discrimination in education -- Law and legislation -- Southern States -- History
Discrimination in education -- North Carolina
Discrimination in education -- North Carolina -- Case studies
Discrimination in education -- North Carolina -- History
North Carolina -- History
Between 1954 and the mid-1960s, the North Carolina legislature enacted legislation to comply with Brown. One law, often referred to as the Pearsall Plan, allowed for school vouchers so that students could attend private schools rather than their desegregated local public schools. During this time period, the number of private schools greatly increased in the state. This voucher system, however, did not take hold. It was later deemed unconstitutional.
North Carolina lawmakers also relied on a freedom of choice plan to serve as the primary plan to desegregate public schools in the state. Freedom of choice did not, however, lead to desegregated schools. By the late 1960s, public schools in North Carolina faced elimination of federal funding if they did not fully desegregate their schools. Under pressure by the federal government, North Carolina schools desegregated their facilities. As you will see, this process was a struggle for many school districts. Many of the sources in this pathfinder will describe these struggles.
Library of Congress Subject Headings
If you decide to conduct your own online search at in the UNC Library Catalog, you should be aware of the Library of Congress Subject Headings. These headings can make it easier for you to find similar books on the same or similar topics. For school desegregation in North Carolina, the following Library of Congress Subject Headings will be helpful.
Also, if you need more explanation, ask a reference librarian. You can also click here for Wikipedia's article concerning LCSH.
School integration
Discrimination in education -- Law and legislation -- North Carolina
Discrimination in education -- Law and legislation -- Southern States -- History
Discrimination in education -- North Carolina
Discrimination in education -- North Carolina -- Case studies
Discrimination in education -- North Carolina -- History
North Carolina -- History
When
beginning the research process, it's important to gain a
working knowledge of the time period, the location, and the major
individuals involved in the event you're studying. Learning the who,
what, when, and where will make the "why" easier to understand.
For this particular topic, make sure you have a general understanding of the Brown v. Board of Education ruling, a basic understanding of North Carolina history, and general knowledge of the Civil Rights movement. To gain this knowledge, begin with the reference works listed below. After you're comfortable the general information, begin looking at some of the more popular secondary works on this subject. If you exhaust these sources and still want more, check out the listings for the primary source material. Remember: these sources will not provide an analysis of these events. Instead, it will be up to you to come up with your own conclusions. While these sources may be harder to understand, they will give you a first-hand account of the events.
Good luck! Remember to have fun!
For this particular topic, make sure you have a general understanding of the Brown v. Board of Education ruling, a basic understanding of North Carolina history, and general knowledge of the Civil Rights movement. To gain this knowledge, begin with the reference works listed below. After you're comfortable the general information, begin looking at some of the more popular secondary works on this subject. If you exhaust these sources and still want more, check out the listings for the primary source material. Remember: these sources will not provide an analysis of these events. Instead, it will be up to you to come up with your own conclusions. While these sources may be harder to understand, they will give you a first-hand account of the events.
Good luck! Remember to have fun!
Reference
Works
Bradley, David and Fishkin, Shelley, eds. The Encyclopedia of Civil Rights in America. Armonk, NY: Sharpe Reference, 1998. Davis Ref. E185.61.E544 1998.
Powell, William S., ed. Dictionary of North Carolina Biography, Vol. 5. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994.
Davis Reference CT252 .D5; Also available as an e-book via netlibrary.
Davis Reference F254 .E54 2006
Frequently Mentioned Texts
Secondary Sources
Celelski, David S. Along Freedom Road: Hyde County, North Carolina and the Fate of Black Schools in the South. Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1994.
Davis Library LC212.522 N8 C43 1994
Chafe, William H. Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina and the Black Struggle for Freedom. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980.
Davis Library F264.G8 C47 1981
Ivey, A.G. Luther H. Hodges, Practical Idealist. Minneapolis: T. S. Denison & Co., 1968.
North Carolina Collection CB H688i
Kinlaw, Patrick Francis. “Tenants and Tories: North Carolina’s Pearsall Plan and its Legacy.” Honors Thesis. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2001.
North Carolina Collection C378 UO7 2000 v. 1
Lefler, Hugh Talmage and Albert Ray Newsome. North Carolina: The History of a Southern State. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1963.
North Carolina Collection C970 L49h 1963
Meyers, Chris. “White Freedom Schools: Eastern North Carolina and the Rise of Segregation Academies in the South, 1954-1974.” M.A. thesis. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2000.
North Carolina Collection C378 UO2 2000 MYERS, C.
North Carolina Historical Review
North Carolina Collection CP970 N87hi
Powell, William S. North Carolina: A History. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1977.
Davis Library F254 .P59 1988
Tyson, Timothy B. Blood Done Sign My Name. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2004.
Davis Library F264 .095 T97 2004
Davis Library LC2802. N8 S53 1996
Primary Sources
About Primary Sources:
Hodges, Luther H. Address on State-wide Radio-Television Network, August 8, 1955. Raleigh, NC, 1955.
Law Library Stacks KFN7792.2 .N67 1955
North Carolina Advisory Committee on Education. Report of the NC Advisory Committee on Education, April 5, 1956. Raleigh, NC, 1956.
Law Library Stacks LB3062 .N67 1956
Raleigh News and Observer. 1950-1974.
North Carolina Collection CO72 N55 1894 -
Web and Electronic Resources
About
Reference Works:
Reference
sources are the best place to start to find out basic information--the
who, what, when and where. The following should help provide a
sound foundation for the rest of your research.
Bradley, David and Fishkin, Shelley, eds. The Encyclopedia of Civil Rights in America. Armonk, NY: Sharpe Reference, 1998. Davis Ref. E185.61.E544 1998.
This
is an
easy to use reference source about the Civil Rights Movement.
Great place to start for information regarding to civil rights in the
United States. Works much like the encyclopedias you've used in
the past.
Powell, William S., ed. Dictionary of North Carolina Biography, Vol. 5. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994.
Davis Reference CT252 .D5; Also available as an e-book via netlibrary.
This
work,
edited by William Powell, is the best reference source for
understanding personalities in North Carolina. Use this as a way
to understand the "who" concerning the desegregation process in North
Carolina. Good people to begin searching include Thomas J.
Pearsall
and Governor Luther Hodges.
Powell, William S., ed. Encyclopedia
of North Carolina. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina
Press, 2006. Davis Reference F254 .E54 2006
This work by William Powell is an
excellent source for information regarding North Carolina, its people,
its culture, and its history. This is perhaps the first place you
should look when beginning your research on the desegregation process
in North Carolina's public schools.
Frequently Mentioned Texts
Secondary Sources
About
Secondary Sources:
Secondary
Sources tell about the historical even in question. Often, they
are analytical in nature and removed in time from the actual historical
event. This list only includes a small number of the works available on
this topic. For more, see the UNC Catalog.
Celelski, David S. Along Freedom Road: Hyde County, North Carolina and the Fate of Black Schools in the South. Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1994.
Davis Library LC212.522 N8 C43 1994
In
his work Along Freedom Road,
David Celelski uncovers the experiences of residents in Hyde County,
North Carolina during the school desegregation process in the
1960s. African Americans in Hyde County boycotted pubic schools
in 1968 through 1969 in order to save two historically black
schools. While it was common for education policy makers to close
black schools, these residents fought back. By looking at this
case study, you will be able to better understand race relations and
the desegregation process in eastern North Carolina.
Chafe, William H. Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina and the Black Struggle for Freedom. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980.
Davis Library F264.G8 C47 1981
Unlike Hyde County and many of the
places in eastern North Carolina, Greensboro was a political hotbed for
progressive change during the Civil Rights Movement. Home of the
sit-in movement, Greensboro's leaders sought makes changes so that its
residents could have equal rights. Indeed, its leaders vowed to
desegregate its schools in 1954. This did not come, however, without
conflict. Desegregation did not occur until 1971. Civilities and Civil Rights tells
the story of the sit-in movement in Greensboro. In addition, it
explains Greensboro's process of desegregating its public
schools. This social history is a great place to obtain
information regarding Brown,
the Civil Rights Movement, and race relations in North Carolina.
Ivey, A.G. Luther H. Hodges, Practical Idealist. Minneapolis: T. S. Denison & Co., 1968.
North Carolina Collection CB H688i
This work helps provide a clearer
picture of Luther H. Hodges, who served as North Carolina governor from
1954 to 1961. It was under Hodges that much of the early
legislation regarding desegregation in North Carolina was formed. While
this work is dated, it will help answer some questions concerning the
personalities involved in the desegregation process in North
Carolina. It is from the Men of Achievement Series.
Kinlaw, Patrick Francis. “Tenants and Tories: North Carolina’s Pearsall Plan and its Legacy.” Honors Thesis. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2001.
North Carolina Collection C378 UO7 2000 v. 1
Master's
theses are often a good place to go for information, as their
bibliography often contains a great bibliography with sources that are
within driving distance. This is true of Kinlaw's "Tenants and
Tories: North Carolina's Pearsall Plan and its Legacy." If you
need in-depth information about the Pearsall Plan, look here.
Kinlaw describes in depth the plan, as well as the few who sought to
utilize this law in order to send their children to segregated private
schools rather than desegregated public schools. It's available
in the North Carolina Collection.
Lefler, Hugh Talmage and Albert Ray Newsome. North Carolina: The History of a Southern State. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1963.
North Carolina Collection C970 L49h 1963
This
is an older textbook once used in history classes at UNC. While
it is dated and does not contain up-to-date information, it is a good
place to go for information regarding the Pearsall Plan. See page
652 for this information. In addition, it's a great place to
learn information about what else was happening in North Carolina in
the mid 1950s. Even though the book is dated, it's a great place
to you to learn basic information that will help you in your
research. It includes an index, so use it to help guide you.
Meyers, Chris. “White Freedom Schools: Eastern North Carolina and the Rise of Segregation Academies in the South, 1954-1974.” M.A. thesis. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2000.
North Carolina Collection C378 UO2 2000 MYERS, C.
During
the desegregation process, North Carolina became the home to many new
private schools. Parents, churches, and other community members
who disliked the desegregation process often fueled the private school
movement in the state. In his Master's thesis, Christopher Meyers
describes the rise of private schools during this time period.
North Carolina Historical Review
North Carolina Collection CP970 N87hi
The North Carolina Historical Review
was established
in 1924. It is published quarterly, and it includes an annual index.
This journal covers all historical topics concerning North Carolina
from the colonial period to the present.
It is extensively cataloged in UNC's online catalog with 1359
entries, so you can check the online catalog first for relevant
articles. After doing this, visit the North Carolina Collection
for access.
Powell, William S. North Carolina: A History. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1977.
Davis Library F254 .P59 1988
William
S. Powell's North Carolina: A History
is a basic text that tells the history of the state of North
Carolina. It's easy to read and comprehend, and it isn't in the
format of a regular history textbook. If you have a question
about North Carolina history, be sure to consult this source. If
you are unable to find information here, be sure to check out the other
William Powell reference sources listed above.
Tyson, Timothy B. Blood Done Sign My Name. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2004.
Davis Library F264 .095 T97 2004
Timothy
Tyson, who grew up in North Carolina, describes his experiences with
race relations in his memoir Blood
Done Sign My Name. While the work focuses heavily on the race
relations in Oxford, North Carolina, Tyson also mentions his
experiences with desegregation while attending public schools in
Wilmington, North Carolina. This work helps provide the reader a better
understanding of race relations in North Carolina.
Walker, Vanessa Siddle. Their
Highest Potential: An African American
School Community in the Segregated South. Chapel Hill:
University of
North Carolina Press, 1996. Davis Library LC2802. N8 S53 1996
This
book is very similar to Along
Freedom Road. In this work, Vanessa Siddle Walker
describes the struggle of the black community in Caswell County to save
the Caswell County Training School. The Caswell County Training
School, an African American school founded in 1934, existed because of
the hard work of the community to make the facility, the teachers, and
the staff the best possible. The call for desegregation, however,
caused white leaders to force the closing of this school. The African
American community fought to save this school; however, they were not
successful. This book will help you learn the experiences of yet
another community in North Carolina.
Primary Sources
About Primary Sources:
Primary
source material is developed during or directly following the actual
historical event in question. The creator is legitimate and
has first-hand knowledge of the event at hand. Usually, secondary
sources are analyses of primary sources. Remember: primary
sources are not always authoritative. The creator can hold
prejudices and biases, and the source may only show one side of the
story. (Newspapers can fall into this category) It is necessary,
therefore, to examine these sources closely. Think. What
does the primary source say about the time period at hand? The creator?
Views of the general public? Secondary source material can help
you better understand primary source material.
Hodges, Luther H. Address on State-wide Radio-Television Network, August 8, 1955. Raleigh, NC, 1955.
Law Library Stacks KFN7792.2 .N67 1955
In
this address, Governor Hodges called upon North Carolinians to follow
the laws set forth by the General Assembly. They must also abide by the
Brown decision. In this
address, he also called upon North Carolinians to voluntarily keep
schools desegregated. This is the address where he made this
plea.
North Carolina Advisory Committee on Education. Report of the NC Advisory Committee on Education, April 5, 1956. Raleigh, NC, 1956.
Law Library Stacks LB3062 .N67 1956
The
North Carolina Advisory Committee, devised by Governor William Umstead
and later overseen by Governor Luther Hodges, was called to study the Brown verdict and its ramifications
for public schools. It released its findings on April 5, 1956.
This is the report the group issued. Use this for better
understanding of the committee and its findings. The end result was the
Pupil Assignment Plan (or Pearsall Plan, after is chairman Thomas J.
Pearsall).
Raleigh News and Observer. 1950-1974.
North Carolina Collection CO72 N55 1894 -
One
of the best ways to gain an understanding of a time period is to peruse
the newspaper from that region and time period. For information
regarding the desegregation of North Carolina's public schools, you can
consult the Raleigh News and Observer
in the North Carolina Collection. Available on microfilm, the
North Carolina Collection holds newspapers from August 12, 1894 to
date. The News and Observer is
indexed for this time period, so that can help serve as a guide.
Web and Electronic Resources
About Web and Electronic Resources:
The web can be a great place to search
for resources concerning your topic. Beware! Not all web
resources are created equally. I have included in this list of
web
resources that are considered legitimate as solid resources. If
you have questions about a web resource, consider the maker of the
page. Still confused? Ask your reference librarian or history
teacher before considering the source as valid.
Also included in this list is a list of electronic databases you should consider using for your research. Remember--these usually require a UNC login if you're not on UNC's campus. If you need help with this, contact a librarian at UNC.
Also included in this list is a list of electronic databases you should consider using for your research. Remember--these usually require a UNC login if you're not on UNC's campus. If you need help with this, contact a librarian at UNC.
America: History & Life via ABC-CLIO. Use E-Resources link at the Main Library Page.
Includes information and source
material (books, book chapters, journal articles, dissertations, and
book reviews) for North American history. For United States
history, it contains information through the present date. Be
sure the search bar has "United States and Canadian History"
selected. Allows you to search using keyword, subject, author.
Can also select the type of article you're interested in finding.
Great resource!
Documenting the American South
http://docsouth.unc.edu
Documenting the American South (or
DocSouth, as it is commonly called) provides a wide-array of sources
concerning the American South. One of the key areas you should
view on this website are the Oral Histories. Be sure to check out
the Charlotte Section, as well as sections dealing with race.
These oral histories will help you gain a better understanding of what
individuals endured during this turbulent period. This
website provides the full transcript, the full audio of the interview,
as well as excerpts that historians have determined to be the highlight
of the interview.
Greensboro Voices
http://library.uncg.edu/depts/archives/civrights/index.asp
Greensboro Voices is a site similar to
Documenting the American South. While it does not contain the
audio, it does include the full transcript. As you will learn
during your research, Greensboro was an interesting place during the
1950s and 1960s. Many leaders spoke out early on for
desegregating public schools; however, they were late in reaching this
goal. Use this site in conjunction with William Chafe's Civilities and Civil Rights.
Journal of Southern History. Available online via Academic OneFile. Search using E-Journal Finder link on Main Library Page.
The Journal of Southern History is one of the most well-respect journals that covers topics concerning the United States South. It was first printed in 1935, and it is still published quarterly today by the Southern Historical Association. It is available online via Academic OneFile. The online version covers 1987 to the present. If you would prefer a different format, Davis has the Journal of Southern History on microfilm. Ask your reference librarian if you need help.
JStor via JStor. Use E-Resources Link on Main Library Page. Requires UNC login if off campus.
Many historians turn to JStor when they
need to gain access to journal articles on a particular subject. JStor
offers full-text journal articles. For you, JStor will be a
useful place for you to find journal articles on the civil rights
movement and desegregation. In addition, it would be a good place for
you to go to find book reviews about historical works concerning
desegregation. For example, you can find multiple book reviews on
Civilities and Civil Rights.
These reviews will help you understand the works better. You will need
a UNC login to use this electronic database. Also, be aware that
more recent articles will not be available online.
Hint: Use the advanced search option. You can choose
the journals you wish you search, as well as the types of articles you
wish to find.
New York Times Historical Newspaper. via ProQuest. Use E-Resources Link on Main Library Page. Requires UNC login if off campus.
Have you ever wondered what the New York Times reporters had to say about desegregation, both in North Carolina and nation-wide? You can found out using the New York Times historical newspaper. If you're not on campus, you'll need to use a UNC login.
Civil Rights Act of 1964, H. R. 7152, 88th Congress. Internet.
Available online at: http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/laws/majorlaw/civilr19.htm
After the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the
federal government began to push for school districts to develop and
enforce more substantial desegregation plans. When you read this,
be sure to pay careful attention to Title VI. This section
required segregated school districts to submit a desegregation plan to
the United States government. School districts submitted their
"freedom of choice" plans to the government, but these plans were not
acceptable.
“History of Education in North Carolina.” Internet.
Available online
at: http://www.dpi.state.nc.us/students/edhistory.html.
Provides a history of public
education in North Carolina. Start here if you know little about
the formation of public education in the state. Easy to follow,
as you simply click the link that applies to the desired knowledge or
time period.
Need Help?
Some of these resources are not
accessible online without a UNC login. This has been indicated in those
cases.
For help with this pathfinder,
please email jdjoyner [at] email [dot]unc [dot]edu.
For help with this subject, please use this page for the appropriate contact. A good place to start would be a physical reference desk. Reference librarians are here to help! If that doesn't work for you, look on the same page for email, IM, and chat information.
For help finding your way to the libraries at UNC, click here.
For help with this subject, please use this page for the appropriate contact. A good place to start would be a physical reference desk. Reference librarians are here to help! If that doesn't work for you, look on the same page for email, IM, and chat information.
For help finding your way to the libraries at UNC, click here.
Last
Updated 4/30/2007