| Kevin Craig Carter |
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| Film Criticism Paper | Capitol Connection | Poetry Analysis | History Paper |
Themes and Styles in John Singleton's Boyz N the Hood and Higher Learning.
Director John Singleton, since the early 1990's, has become a primer voice of social commentary. Through his movies, Boyz N the Hood and Higher Learning, the director has addressed the issue of relationships among social groups in America. He has done this through the use of recurring themes within his movies and his extraordinary use of cinematography.
Singleton uses the similar themes of race, potential, education and violence through different settings and characters to address the issue of relationships among social groups in America. Each theme shows a different aspect of his message, and is often shown through a different point of view, but the messages, for the most part, remain similar. In his movies, Boyz N the Hood and Higher Learning, Singleton shows the importance of potential and education, and advocates an end to racism and violence in different social groups.
The settings of the two films play an important role in establishing the themes, and showing relationships among different groups. The settings affect the themes by the circumstances in which the put the characters. Boyz N the Hood is set in South Central Los Angeles, where there are not any whites. Because of this setting, it is much more difficult to see how race relations effect the interaction of social groups than it is in Higher Learning, which is set at the culturally diverse Columbus University. The college setting provides a cross-cultural group of individuals, where race plays a tremendous factor. On the other hand, the university provides its characters a supposedly safer setting, where violence is not as prevalent, and the characters do not have to live in fear, as much as they do in South Central LA. The characters in Boyz N the Hood have to cope with day to day violence, and constant fear. These situations put a strain on social relations, where violent attitudes often come out. By putting his two films in different settings, John Singleton shows that his themes of race, potential, education and violence are universal in how they affect social relations.
Characters in Boyz N the Hood and Higher Learning interact to show the affects of race, potential, education and violence on social relations. The different situations lead to differing characters. As shown earlier, there are not many non-black characters in Boyz N the Hood, because there are not many non-blacks in the area. In Higher Learning, on the other hand, demographics are different, thus leading to differing interactions between differing groups. There are, however, similar characters in each movie that keep the themes fluid. In each film, the lead character is a highly intelligent young black man with a lot of potential. Tre Styles (played by Cuba Gooding Jr. in Boyz N the Hood) and Malik Williams (played by Omar Epps in Higher Learning) both have dreams of a better life, in a nice area away from the violence and racism that has plagued their youths, and each has the potential to achieve their dreams. Through their lives and actions, the two lead characters come to embody the themes of the films as they encounter race problems and violence, and cope with the pressures of potential and education. Using these two characters, and the obstacles that they face, Singleton is able to better explore social relations between groups in America.
Other similar characters in Boyz N the Hood and Higher Learning also serve to keep the themes fluid, and help Singleton show how race, potential, education, and violence affect social relations. In each film, there is a wise, older man who acts as a father figure to the lead character. In Boyz N the Hood, the character is Furious Styles (played by Laurence Fishburne), who actually is Tre's dad. Furious works hard in the film to teach Tre about responsibility, and nurtures his potential and education. He also serves as a conscious, deterring Tre from violence, and keeping him separated from the crazy surroundings. This character in Higher Learning is Professor Maurice Phipps (also played by Laurence Fishburne), Malik's Political Science teacher, who serves as a mentor to the young man. Professor Phipps plays many of the same roles as Furious Styles, in that he nurtures Malik's enormous potential, and encourages him to get the most from his education. Professor Phipps also discourages his students from racial attitudes in their social dealings, as he meets with all characters in the film, and treats everyone with complete fairness and equality. The characters of Furious Styles and Professor Maurice Phipps bring a calmness to the story, and serve as a pillar that is opposite to the setting and surrounding in which the characters live. Although the characters do not embody the themes of race or violence in the least bit, their resistance to these actions helps Singleton show how race and violence should not affect social relations in a negative manor.
The female characters in the films are strong, and for the most part, morally righteous. Brandi (played by Nia Long in Boyz N the Hood) and Deja (played by Tyra Banks in Higher Learning) are the girlfriends of Tre and Malik, as they serve to influence the men towards the path of good. They also demonstrate relationships between men and women where mutual respect is involved. It is obvious that Singleton has great respect for women, as his female characters are always some of the best. The final character that is present in each of Singleton's films is the bad-influence friend of the lead character. In Boyz N the Hood, this character is Doughboy (played by Ice Cube), a gang-banger friend of Tre who often takes the path of crime. He is the opposite of Brandi, in that he always takes the racist and violent side of things, and has no potential for a future. The personality is similarly portrayed in Higher Learning by Fudge (also played by Ice Cube). He gets Malik involved in racist and violent interaction with others, and almost ruins the young man's potential for a good future. This character represents everything that Singleton wants removed from social relations. Although they all play different roles, the characters in Boyz N the Hood and Higher Learning interact to show the affects of race, potential, education and violence on social relations.
Race and inter-race relations are key themes in Boyz N the Hood and Higher Learning. It is a major issue in the films, as most of the main characters are minorities, and almost every character displays racist attitudes at some point. In Higher Learning, the different racial groups at Columbus University divide themselves into different groups on campus, and these groups never mix. It is Fudge, in fact, who points out these groups to Malik, giving an easy, stereotypical name to each one, such as "Chinatown" for Oriental Students, "Disneyland" for upper-class white students, "South of the Border" for Hispanics, and "the Black Hole" for African-Americans. Although individual characters may grow and learn to accept one another, the racial groups in Higher Learning never learn to accept one another. At the same time, race is a unifying theme in Boyz N the Hood. The black neighborhood acts to support its members, and attempts to protect its youth without attacking any other racial groups. John Singleton seems to want to take the race out of relationships, portraying those characters like Kristen (played by Kristy Swanson), who can accept other racial groups, positively and characters that act divisively, like Fudge and Remy (played by Michael Rapaport), negatively.
Singleton shows social relations in his films, Boyz N the Hood and Higher Learning through views on the importance of realizing one's potential and the tragedy when it is wasted. In Boyz N the Hood, Ricky Baker (played by Morris Chestnut) and Tre Styles, as well as Malik Williams in Higher Learning have the potential to leave their poor backgrounds behind, and excel in the world. Ricky and Tre often talk of leaving "the hood," to go into business. Singleton gives the viewer the idea that the two are destined to make it out of LA, too, Tre through his smarts and dedication and Ricky through his supreme athletic ability. Similarly, Malik works hard to improve his grades, and shows that he has the potential to excel through his smarts and athletic ability. All characters in both films cherish potential in social relations above anything else. Ricky and Tre are treated much better by other characters than is Doughboy, based solely on the fact that they have the chance to make a better life for themselves, whereas Doughboy does not. Furthermore, Malik, despite his shortcomings, is much more respected than Remy or Fudge.
Potential is so cherished in social relations in the films, that it becomes a great tragedy when it goes unfulfilled. In Boyz N the Hood, Ricky is gunned down by a group of gangsters as he returns home from the store. Singleton does not leave the tragedy simply at Ricky being innocently killed. Social relations for the remainder of the film are based on the tragic event. Doughboy and Tre quickly begin to grieve, as do his mother and girlfriend. To top off the tremendous tragedy, Ricky's SAT scores arrive shortly after his killing, only to prove that he had high enough a score to receive a full scholarship to USC, the break that would have let him finally live up to his potential. The tragedy of unfulfilled potential comes up in Higher Learning, as well, when Deja is shot and killed by Remy. Deja was a truly good character, with the potential to do great things, yet she was unjustly killed in a racial shooting. Opposite to the strain that untouched potential puts on social relations in the films, potential, when reached, brings another aspect to Singleton's themes. At the end of Boyz N the Hood, Tre and Brandi finally finish high school, and move off to college in Atlanta. This leaves the viewer with the impression that the two of them finally made it out of "the hood," and were able to start a better life. Similarly, in Higher Learning, Malik continues college despite the adversity, and seems to even turn over a new leaf when he begins a friendship with Kristen. The excellence of realized potential and the tragedy when it is wasted brings a sense of urgency and importance to group relations in the films.
Education is a central theme in the two films, as it forms a centerpiece of social relations. Singleton emphasizes the importance of the theme of education in his films from the start with their taglines: quoting Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. saying, "a mind is a terrible thing to waste" in Boyz N the Hood, and using the simple phrase, "Question the Knowledge" for Higher Learning. These quotes show the viewer from the beginning that Singleton means for education to play a central part in establishing relations between groups. The Auteur goes on to show that education, like potential, means a better life for the characters. Tre, Ricky and Brandi desperately want education in order to get out of the ghetto, and Malik, Deja and Kristen need it to stay out. For whatever reason, the quest for knowledge becomes more and more important throughout the films in establishing social relationships. The desire for and quality of education plays an important role in showing relationships between social groups in the films.
Violence is the most important of themes in John Singleton's films, in that the relationships between groups often come to fighting of some sort. Many small skirmishes happen throughout both films, and the climaxes of each involve shootings. In Boyz N the Hood, after a few scuffles with an opposing group, the gangsters chase Ricky and Tre before they tragically shoot and kill Ricky. Doughboy quickly avenges his brother's death by killing the four people involved, and is then killed himself a few days later. Likewise in Higher Learning, after many fights, mostly between whites and blacks, Remy goes to the roof of a building with a rifle, and begins to shoot people, killing Deja. Singleton condemns violence and advocates peace between different people by showing violence in such a horrible way.
In his films, John Singleton uses the themes of race, potential, education and violence through different settings and characters to address the issue of relationships among social groups in America. Each theme shows a different aspect of his message, and is often shown through a different point of view, but the messages, for the most part, remain similar. Further emphasizing the themes are the styles of cinematography that the Auteur uses throughout his films. Through the use of available lighting, anticipatory shots, linear structure, among other effects, Singleton is able to help the stories move along, thus making his themes more effective.
Singleton uses available lighting very often throughout both films. Both movies are set mostly outside. In Boyz N the Hood, most of the key scenes are shot either on the doorstep of Ricky's house or on the streets of South Central LA, where the characters spend most of their time. The most dramatic use of available lighting in the film is during the shooting of Ricky, which happens on an outside street corner. The lighting in the shot makes for a more realistic scene, and helps contribute to the themes of wasted potential, race and violence. Likewise, in Higher Learning, many of the scenes happen outdoors on the campus of Columbus University; the most important of which is the shooting of Deja in the main quad. Again, the use of available lighting makes for more realistic scenes, and contributes to the themes of the film.
Another technique used by John Singleton throughout his films is the occasional anticipatory shot. The director uses these shots to emphasize important points that contribute heavily to the themes of the movies. In Boyz N the Hood, an anticipatory shot comes in the middle, as the SAT administrator holds out a test booklet, emphasizing the themes of education and potential. Another instance comes at the end of the film, as the car stops and the young gang member points a shotgun at Ricky. The camera temporarily pauses, as the anticipation of Ricky's murder is enough to emphasize the themes of race and violence. The aiming of a gun is again used in Higher Learning, as the camera focuses on a point of view shot out of Remy's rifle, just before he begins shooting the innocent people below. The use of anticipatory shots in the two films helps to emphasize the important themes and may even help show how the themes contribute to social relations.
Finally, John Singleton uses linear structure in his stories in order to keep some fluidity. With the linear structure, the story lines happen continuously, thus creating more effective situations. Furthermore, the linear structure of the plots helps to show the themes more clearly, and thus helps Singleton to better examine relationships among social groups.
Since his directing debut in 1991, John Singleton has used the themes of race, potential, education and violence through different settings and characters to address the issue of relationships among social groups in America. Each theme tells different about his message, and is often shown through different points of view, but the messages remain the same. Further emphasizing the themes are the styles of cinematography that the Auteur uses throughout his films. Through the use of available lighting, anticipatory shots, linear structure, among other effects, Singleton is able to help the stories move along, thus helping to make his themes of race, potential, education and violence more effective in examining the relationships of social groups in America.
Capitol Connection: June 25, 2001 - July 5, 2001
Last Week in Appropriations
The $18.9 billion Interior Appropriations Bill for fiscal year 2002 passed the House on Friday. A portion of the money will go to fund the maintenance and operation of the Blue Ridge Parkway, the Great Smoky Mountain National Park, and the Pisgah and Nantahala National Forests. The House also passed last week a $6.5 billion supplemental appropriations bill for this fiscal year, 2001. $5.5 billion was allocated to defense spending, but the supplemental bill also included appropriations for energy assistance and to administer the tax rebate program.
This Week on the Hill
The Senate will continue work on the "Patients' Bill of Rights" this week, and may remain in session until they complete it next week. Senate Republicans and Democrats have already clashed over the future of managed health care and the overall organization of the bill.
In the House: The vast majority of the work of the House of Representatives for the next couple of months will be on the passage of the 13 annual funding or appropriation bills for the operation of the federal government for the 2002 fiscal year beginning October 1sto The Appropriations Committee has approved the $15.6 billion Agriculture Appropriation Bill. The bill provides funding for disaster relief and agriculture activities, including crop support, agricultural research, and an increased allocation to the Farm Service Agency for farm loans. The Agriculture bill is scheduled for debate on the House floor this week. The FY02 Energy and Water Development Appropriation Bill is scheduled for full committee markup this week. The $23.7 billion bill provides funding for flood control and alternative energy sources research. It also serves to fund the Army Corps of Engineers and the Department of Energy. The FY02 Transportation Bill also may go to full Appropriations Committee markup this week. The $59.1 billion bill will provide needed investment in the nation's infrastructure. It will also address the growing problem of airline delays, and work to make automobiles safer. Finally, the Legislative Branch Appropriation Subcommittee, which I Chair will begin hearings this week on the funding for the Congress, the Library of Congress, the General Accounting Office and the Government Printing Office.
Sports Update
In the 4Oth annual bipartisan Congressional Baseball Game, the Republicans easily defeated the Democrats 9-1. Rep. Steve Largent's (R-OkIa.) complete game stylishly gave the GOP its 26th victory over the Democrats.
Intern News
K. C. Carter completes his internship this week, and will head back to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill to take summer classes. Michael Calvo joins us this week to begin his internship. Michael is from Hendersonville and is a Senior at Duke University. He is the son of Alfredo and Jane Calvo. I want to welcome Michael and bid a fond farewell to K. C.
Today, my interns, K. C. Carter, Michael Calvo, and Emily Hunt greeted President and Mrs. Bush as they arrived at the White House via the presidential helicopter, Marine One. As the President and First Lady returned from their Texas ranch, they shook hands and exchanged pleasantries with each of the interns. Following their greeting of the President, the three were escorted through the Rose Garden and the West Wing of the White House on a quick sightseeing trip. All in all, it was a wonderful experience for the group.
A Time for Remembrance
As Memorial Day recently passed and American Independence Day approaches, we have to take time to think about the many American service men and women who put themselves in harms way daily, even in the present time of peace. One of these brave individuals, Petty Officer 3rd Class Matthew Draughton, a US Navy diver and Hendersonville resident, was killed during a deep-sea recovery mission on May 5. Matthew will be interred with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery this week. A member of my staff will be in attendance at the funeral, and all of our thoughts and prayers will be with his family.
CHT/kc
Passionate Illusions
Passion can be a powerful thing. Often, the simple memory of an extraordinarily passionate event can seem more real than the real world itself. William Wordsworth often exemplifies this idea in his poetry. In his 1799 poem, "Strange Fits of Passion Have I Known," Wordsworth
"dare[s] to tell
But in the Lover's ear alone,
What once to [him] befel." (ll. 2-4)
In what, at first, seems to be an uncharacteristically simple love poem, Wordsworth beautifully puts into words, feelings common to every adolescent at some point: Those of apprehension, bliss, and ultimately loss, while experiencing a strong mix of passion and love. In "Strange Fits of Passion Have I Known," the narrator, who is barely detached from Wordsworth himself by the use of the passive voice, is obviously on his way to pick up a young lady; or more correctly, vividly remembering an occurrence in which he was on his way to pick up the girl who he had been courting. As the voyage continues, the speaker's attention and passion are drawn to the setting moon. As the moon falls lower in the sky, the narrator's begins to equate its setting moon and his feelings for it with the life of Lucy, his beautiful girlfriend, and his blissful thoughts turn to despair. Finally, as he sees the moon set behind Lucy's cottage, "wayward thoughts…slide/Into [the] Lover's head," (ll. 25-26) and he wonders what "if Lucy should be dead" (l. 28). Although it first seems a simple love poem, "Strange Fits of Passion Have I Known" contains a much more deep message about the power of passion, and the adverse way in which it can effect one's reality.
Wordsworth's poetry, as he states in his "Preface to Lyrical Ballads," "is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings" that comes from past "emotion recollected in tranquility" (p. 250). The majority of his works were written from powerful memories, including such great poems as: "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud," "Elegiac Stanzas," "Westminster Bridge," and the other three Lucy Poems, in addition to many others. "Strange Fits of Passion Have I Known" is no different in that regard, as Wordsworth is certainly writing about an experience he had while courting a young lady long ago. And yet, Wordsworth is able to set this poem apart from the others. "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud" and "Westminster Bridge" speak of immense beauty, but "Strange Fits of Passion Have I Known" takes the memories to a stronger, more powerful level. The narrator clearly shows that we, as readers are being allowed the privilege of accompanying him in the memory of a powerful experience that happened to him long ago. He says that he has known such "strange fits of passion," (l. 1) and, in fact, they are so strange and powerful that it is our privilege that he "will dare to tell But in the lover's ear alone What once to [him] befell" (ll. 2-4). Wordsworth, who is not known for is use of hyperbole, is excited to the point that the simple anticipation of this passionate memory immediately draws the reader's attention. We are anxious to read on, and discover who, or what is the object of this fit of passion, and what makes the event so spectacular.
It is in the second stanza that the narrator apparently describes the target of his passion. Although he does not tell exactly who his target is, the speaker compares her beauty in line 6, to that of a rose, implying that his passion was the driving force which "to her cottage bent [his] way" (l. 7). In the third stanza, as he gets closer to his lover's cottage, he quickens his pace. Wordsworth, who, as shown in "The Prelude, Book Fourth" was an extremely hot-blooded young man, makes no attempt to hide the physical passion for the young lady. Although passion is only a mental property, the narrator's lust for his lover seems to cause such urgency to his actions, that it basically creates a reality in which his passion reigns supreme. (Work 2) Even with the physical urgency and yearning for his love, the speaker, in a manor characteristic of Wordworth's writings, notices the beauty of the moon. And it is "upon the moon" (l. 9) to which his eye and attention are fixed for the remainder of the journey.
Wordsworth often uses reoccurring natural images in his poetry to signify the changing moods and attitudes of the characters the work. In "Michael," "the tumultuous brook of Green-head Ghyll" in line two becomes "the boisterous book of Green-head Ghyll" in line 482. In "Strange Fits of Passion Have I Known," the moon serves the same purpose. Not only is it a powerful reminder of the beauty of nature, but it becomes the focal point of his passionate thoughts. In the third stanza, "upon the moon [he] fixes [his] eye," (l. 9), and there it stays. No matter how lovely the orchards or remarkable the hills through which he passes in the fourth stanza, the speaker's gaze can not be broken away from the quickly descending celestial body. And by the fifth stanza, passion has overtaken him, and he is no longer paying attention to anything else. Instead the speaker is "in one of those sweet dreams/ Kind Nature's gentlest boon" (ll. 17-18). "And all the while [his] eyes [he] kept/ On the descending moon" (ll. 19-20), as almost all of the passion, which had once seemingly been directed towards Lucy, is momentarily transferred to the celestial body. It is at this moment that we, the reader find out the object of the "strange fits of passion," which were spoken of in line one. The narrator is truly obsessed with, and feels a sense of passion for the rapidly setting moon, and struggles to hang on as it passes behind Lucy's cottage. As it finally sets and leaves the speaker alone in the dark night, he suddenly panics. He is shocked that:
"[His] horse moved on; hoof after hoof
He raised, and never stopped:
When down behind the cottage roof,
At once, the bright moon dropped" (ll. 21-24).
As the strange fit of passion begins to pass, the speaker begins to regain his senses and original purpose. Yet his sudden panic attack does not pass so quickly, and the speaker begins to wonder about his true love as well.
Extreme passion has the power to produce highly illogical thoughts in a young man's mind. Such "fond and wayward thoughts" slide into the young lover's head, and suddenly he cries out at the thought that his beloved Lucy could be dead. (ll. 25-28) Although there is no logical reason that the speaker should believe his love to be dead, the sudden end of his strange fit of passion momentarily halted the young man's ability to use logic. After becoming so fixated on the moon, just to have it set, and basically leave him alone, the speaker loses trust for the consistency of his world. The passion, in effect, becomes such a reality, that conventional logic loses its place.
In his poem, "Strange Fits of Passion Have I Known," William Wordsworth masterfully recalls a night from his youth in which he experienced, maybe for the first time, true passion and true loss. Passion manifested itself as reality within the narrator, and the real world, if only for a moment, was misplaced. In its original version, the poem contained an additional stanza, concluding with the lines: "And when I think upon that night / My eyes are dim with tears." (252) With this, Wordsworth, as he said in his Preface, concludes that passion can create a vivid world that "does itself actually exist" (250).
Works Cited:
1. Abrams, M. H., et al. The Norton Anthology of English Literature 7th ed. Volume 2. New York: W. W. Norton and Company: 2000.
More than a Struggle
Anne Moody's autobiography, Coming of Age in Mississippi, provided a firm example of the struggles that blacks went through in order to gain social equality in the early to mid nineteenth century. In reading about Anne Moody's life as a social activist, one could see the poor conditions and fear in which many other activists lived. As the book traced her actions through childhood, and into the movement, where she worked with the NAACP and fought for social equality, the injustices that she described were both horrible and moving. Through the information provided in Anne Moody's book, Coming of Age in Mississippi, it is clear that the people involved in the civil rights movement were extremely committed, despite the injustices done to them, as they fought to break away from old traditions, protest in the face of fear, and keep the Civil Rights movement going despite great criticism.
Throughout the childhood and high school years described in Anne Moody's book, Coming of Age in Mississippi, it was clear that she, like many other youth of the time, wanted to break away from the traditional oppression that plagued blacks, despite their elder's passive attitudes. In the beginning of the book, Moody seemed desperate to challenge the traditional oppression of blacks, in favor of some sort of movement. So early in her life, she had no idea what she wanted, but simply knew that she wanted something different from what her parents and grandparents had. Her frustrations manifested themselves when her mother attempted to make her join a church against her will, driving her to say, "I just bet Mama's gonna tell me Sister Jones say I oughta join church…Well, I'm not! I ain't scared of that old witch! I'm goin' to join Centreville Baptist." (p. 70) Moody continued to fight against the older generation's passive ways, and later wanted to join the NAACP, yet her elders kept trying to keep her from causing trouble. Another of Anne Moody's elders, Mrs. Rice stated the position of the older generation excellently when she told Moody, "You gotta find something to do, Essie, that will take your mind off some of this. It's not good for you to concern yourself too much about these killings and beatings and burnings. The Negroes here ain't gonna do nothing about them." (p. 145) The attitudes of Moody's elders summed up the feelings of the older generations of that time, in that none of the elders wanted to cause trouble, or fight such a tough battle. The older generations felt it useless, and dangerous to fight such hard fights, yet the younger generations (Anne Moody especially) wanted change so desperately, that they were willing to take the risks.
As Anne Moody and her generation got older, they continued to desire change, and were willing to anything necessary to achieve it. Moody became extremely active in college, especially in the instance described in Chapter 19, where some of the black students found maggots in their rice. After talking to the college's President, and continuing to get no response, she decided to boycott the cafeteria, and encouraged other blacks to do it as well. Soon, the school had to give in to their demands in the face of losing extreme amounts of money. Actions such as those showed the determination of Moody, and her generation as a whole, as they were willing to fight for what they thought was right.
As Anne Moody and many other social activists grew up, and continued fighting for social equality, they encountered great difficulties, but managed to persevere. When Southern blacks joined with the NAACP, and other socially active causes, they put themselves and their families in danger of hate crimes and lynching. Some potential activists were scared off by such threats, but most, such as Moody, stuck with the cause. She exemplified many activists' feelings when she said, "I worried what might possibly happen to me or my family if I joined the NAACP. But I knew I was going to join, anyway. I had wanted to for a long time." (p. 248) Anne Moody and the social activists of her generation braved the dangers of social activism and strived for and achieved real changes in society.
Anne Moody's autobiography, Coming of Age in Mississippi, showed an example of the struggles that blacks of her generation went through in order to gain some sort of social equality. In describing her own actions, Moody really described the actions of the movement as a whole, with herself personifying many of the traits. Not only did they overcome a strongly opinionated older generation that felt strongly about passiveness, but they also braved the hatred and violence of many whites of that time period, in order to fight for their cause. Anne Moody's book clearly shows the extreme commitment of black Civil Rights advocates.
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