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Prior to Books:
For ancient text, rolls used, written parallel to length.
In medieval rolls, written parallel to width; difficult to handle long ones.
Other problems: could only hold half as much (written on one side), must re-roll to read again.
Gradual adoption of book-making by monks in the 6th and 7th centuries.
Reformed Benedictines of the 10th-12th centuries were enthusiastic about books; we get many good descriptions from them. By this time, book-making and books closely identified with the monastic life.
I. Materials
Until ~1400 in England, written on sheep skin (parchment) and calf skin (vellum).
Vellum more expensive, available in larger sizes, and stronger. Used for fine productions of large books.
Finest material is uterine vellum (skin of unborn calves).
Also, in S. Europe goat skin used.
Calf skin: shaved and smoothed on both sides, uniform appearance.
Sheep & goat: inside (flesh-side) more finely prepared than hair-side.
- Prepare by soaking a long time in water and lime: makes it easier to pluck and more supple.
- Then stretch on frame and scrape: makes thinner, smoother.
- Scraped with semi-circular blade (lunellarium), which also squeezes out the moisture.
- Next, scour moistened flesh-side (could be done with "mouthful of good ale") with pumice.
- For whiteness, could rub with powdered chalk (pouncing).
Paper comes into England after 1300; first known use c. 1308. Not manufactured there until 1494, not widely used until after 1400, then not common. [Take these dates with a grain of salt.]
Medieval paper not as sturdy as skin, but tougher and thicker than modern paper, cheaper than skin, availability not dependent on local number of cattle, easier to store, required no further treatment after its manufacture. Print dependent on paper; some print on skins, but not much.
II. Quires
Self-contained booklets.
Bifolium: single sheet folded in middle (2 leaves). Four bifolia = normal medieval quire.
Multifolded: two large sheets stacked, folded once each direction, and cut. Gives same appearance and number of leaves as bifolia.
Not always possible to determine which method was used, as they both look the same.
- Unlikely that skins were produced in standard sizes
- Practices differ as to folding methods and shapes, no matter quire method used (Paris, short square books; Oxford, long narrow books)
Booklets forming volumes: quaternio (originally four sheets, later any gathering).
Number of leaves per quire varies.
Early, no particular arrangement. Later, almost always arranged so whiter, smoother flesh side opposite flesh side, and hair sides together.
Before 12th century, generally quired in eights (in England, Europe, and Greek and Coptic texts) or tens (Ireland and Hebrew texts)
After the 12th century, numbers are more varied.
Often, leaves per quire could vary even within one manuscript, and additional leaves were occasionally added.
III. Manner of Filling Pages
Usually ruled before writing:
Holes pricked down each side of page with an awl, metal stylus used to draw lines between holes, plus perpendicular lines to mark the margins. Space also left for illuminations, if known where they will be. Lines form grooves on one side, ridges on the other (later, more picky; when leaves lined up, ridge-side and groove-side oppose same type).
From 12th century on, solid lead (plummet) often used instead of stylus, and so pages ruled individually. By the 15th century, lines marked in ink.
Holes sometimes made with compasses or a spiked wheel: with this method of pricking, several leaves could be done at a time, and the lines are less visible.
Generally, leaves written on in order, straight through the quire.
For multifolded sheets, might fold to get page delineation, then unfold and write on it, then re-fold.
Must wait between pages for ink to dry; no indication of blotting or sand used (would leave it less black).
Aimed for "good, fast black" ink, esp. based on charcoal from young shoots of grape-vine.
Skin not terribly permeable; if gum solution of ink too strong, could adhere to surface only, then become brittle and flake off.
Written with quill pen.
When writing on sheets, might number them to assist in quire reassembly later. Called signatures; usually letters or Roman numerals, in extreme bottom of page; usually trimmed for binding.
Quires often numbered in lower right on last page. "q#", then later just the number (most often large and Roman).
Writing process the same whether loose or bound. Only evidence for writing before binding comes from illuminations. This was probably infrequent:
- Few off-sets seen (reverse ink on opposite page)
- Use of catchwords (bottom of quire, words in the quire following)
- First and last pages of works blank, to protect work from rubbing against things whilst unbound (done as flyleafs, but also appear interior of ms). If not blank, may have irrelevant or unrelated material, or may be cut out leaving stubs.
After written, texts were corrected: compared to original by another person. Missing text inserted, errors struck through and corrected above or scraped out and re-written.
Correction method used varies by individual and time. Some just marked doubtful text, then compared that. Signs for omission, insertions, etc. vary.
Very few mss without some colour.
Illumination goes last: directions given by squire or corrector, and sometimes remain.
For further information, see:
Ivy, G. S. "The Bibliography of the Manuscript Book," in Francis Wormald and C. E. Wright, eds., The English Library Before 1700 (London, 1958), pp. 32-65.
Pages designed by Lorelei Feldman
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Pages last updated 17 January 2002