Penetentials are popular medieval manuscripts which prescribe penance for specific sins. They are among the most abundant works in all of Europe, and can be found even among the most rural parishes (although many of them have been overshadowed in the modern era by less vulgar works of scholastic theology). Written by ecclesiastical authors, these books are not devoted to a theology of sin, but rather its practical application. They consist of a lengthy catalogue of sins, and the corresponding penances necessary to assure absolution. Although these books are wildly popular, the higher clergy generally opposes penetentials and condemns them as being deceptive. In some places religious authorities have even banned books of penetentials and prohibited priests from using them, but so great is their popularity that their use persists.
Aside from copies of the scriptures, or perhaps a work of hagiography, the penetential is the parish priest's most treasured possession. But laymen are forbidden to know the contents of a penetential, lest they be led into temptation by the devil to thoughts and deeds related to the sins listed within the text.
Always associated with the Penetential is the ritual of confession. By the 13th Century this once public affirmation of sins has been replaced by a private meeting between sinner and the priest, called 'father-confessor'. Although the contents of the Penetential may guide the confession, the ritual is much more personal than simply referring to the decree of the text. Confession always begins with an affirmation of the confessor's belief in the Holy Trinity. Then, perhaps with the help of the Penetential, the priest begins to question the confessor, trying to ascertain if they have sinned and bestow an appropriate penance. Unlike modern tradition, guilt is always assumed by the father-confessor. The priest might begin, "Beloved, since you may not recall all your deeds, I shall ask you questions so that you will not at the devil's prompting hide anything from me". Reticence or slyness in confession is strictly forbidden, not to mention a grave sin.
Although the confession between sinner and father-confessor is strictly confidential, it often transpires that other local folk learn of the penance (they may observe the sinner performing penance, or learn of it from the penitant person directly). Such situations are not necessarily cause for shame (though they can be), because many folk will try to help the penitant person fulfill their penance, reminding them of their duties and supporting their efforts with words and deeds. For example, someone who is fasting for their penance may lose their dedication and break their fast, but the baker may refuse to sell them food, reminding them of their duty to fast. Such a bond between folk in a community is important to the successful completion of a penance, and for this reason it is traditional to give confession only to one's local parish priest. This communal bond helps to strengthen the cohesion of parishoners, and is part of the reason there exists a distinct 'foreignness' to outsiders (e.g., covenfolk). Perhaps the surest way to earn the trust and respect of nearby villagers is to attend their church, give confession, and be seen doing penance. It is said that those people who depart their parish, beyond the bounds of their home, are more easily tempted to sin and able to shrug their sins aside.
The register of sins in a Penetential is quite thorough, but the penances inflicted are much more predictible. They include fasting, prayer, vigils, or perhaps temporary expulsion from the community. Some are more elaborate, such as sleeping in water or upon nettles, or perhaps in a tomb next to a corpse. But the guiding principle of prescribing a penance adheres to the principle of contraria. Wherever possible, the sin must be punished with its opposite: a proud man should be broken by humility, the slothful man given diligent labor, the glutton made to fast, avarice rewarded by bestowing charity, the adulterer made to be silent, and so forth. In addition, the penance should take into account the social status and personality of the sinner (including sex and age). If someone has resisted revealing their sin, or compounded it by hiding their conduct for a long period of time, the penance is increased accordingly.
Some forms of penance are given specific names and commonly used among the more educated ecclesiastes. Standing with outstretched arms and reciting verses of the Bible for example, is termed "The Cross". "Palmatae" refers to the beating of one's palms upon the floor, and "Disciplina" to flagellation or self-flagellation.
As an example of an extreme penance, someone who confesses to the murder of a relative might have to fast (no meat or wine), may not bathe or take up arms, may not converse with other Christians ever again, and must always walk on foot (never riding in a cart or upon a horse). The successful completion of a penance absolves the penitant person of that particular sin, but failure to complete the penance assuredly leaves the sin as a burden upon their immortal soul when they are judged before God. Note that in some cases civil law codes mandate that in addition to any secular punishment the guilty person must do penance for their crime.
Many actions will obviously fall under the category of sin, particularly committing any of the seven deadly sins. But our modern sensibilities may have difficulty perceiving sin in the following relatively common innocuous deeds. Nevertheless they are all acts of sin to the Christians of medieval Europe, and include:
*the use of blood in animals is surprisingly popular among peasants due to the magic it possessed, which they used to brew herbal potions, etc. For example, see the supplementary section on the magical power of moles.
Surprisingly, no penance is prescribed for being absent from a divine sermon. Also, it may be possible for someone doing penance to circumvent the penance directly by deferring it to another person. A 'justus' for example, is someone paid to fast in the place of a sinner, though this practice is usually reserved for the nobility and wealthy merchants.
This page last modified 1/22/98.
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